The Depiction of Coronal Structure in White-Light Images

The very steep decrease in density with heliocentric distance makes imaging of coronal density structures out to a few solar radii challenging. The radial gradient in brightness can be reduced using numerous image processing techniques, thus quantitative data are manipulated to provide qualitative images. We introduce a new normalizing-radial-graded filter (NRGF): a simple filter for removing the radial gradient to reveal coronal structure. Applied to polarized brightness observations of the corona, the NRGF produces images which are striking in their detail. Total-brightness, white-light images include contributions from the F corona, stray light, and other instrumental contributions which need to be removed as effectively as possible to properly reveal the electron corona structure. A new procedure for subtracting this background from LASCO C2 white-light, total-brightness images is introduced. The background is created from the unpolarized component of total-brightness images and is found to be remarkably time-invariant, remaining virtually unchanged over the solar cycle. By direct comparison with polarized-brightness data, we show that the new background-subtracting procedure is superior in depicting coronal structure accurately, particularly when used in conjunction with the NRGF. The effectiveness of the procedures is demonstrated on a series of LASCO C2 observations of a coronal mass ejection (CME).     

Soft solar X-rays and solar activity

Soft X-radiation between 8–12 Å was found to be emitted from the Sun at the time of four optically-identified major systems of loop prominences. The peak emission rates and time-integrated X-ray energies are very similar for three of the events while the fourth appeared to emit X-rays only weakly. The data are not consistent with a compression-condensation model for the loops, and support the fast-proton injection model. Proton injection may take place on a long time scale.     

Nonmodal Growth on a Sphere at Various Horizontal Scales

Nonmodal growth (NG) and unstable normal mode growth are considered in spherical geometry. Two groups of initial conditions (IC) are studied: "connected" IC (common in Cartesian studies) and "separated" IC (based on observed conditions prior to cyclogenesis). Time series of growth rates are emphasized in conjunction with eigenmode projections. Projections show that early on normal mode growth was much stronger for connected IC and that NG caused negative growth early on of some variables for separated IC. Projections explain why amplitude, kinetic energy (KE), and potential vorticity have more NG than available potential energy (APE). Though varying between ICs and with initial phase shift, NG increases with wavenumber. For middle wavelengths, NG is significant and positive using connected IC but negative or small using separated IC. Total energy and KE growth rates of short waves are very similar during the first 2 days for both ICs. Amplitude time series closely follow KE in all cases studied. APE has less overlap than does KE between the main modes present, so less NG occurs for APE than for KE. In separated IC cases, APE growth rates evolve consistent with emergence of an unstable normal mode and little NG.     

The axial momentum balance of Earth and its fluid envelope

The emergence of greatly improved data sets over the past decade has heightened awareness of the close relationship between changes in the axial component of the angular momentum of the atmosphere and that of the solid Earth, the latter being reflected in small, though detectable, changes in the planet's rate of rotation. Changes in the large-scale wind field, and hence in atmospheric angular momentum, on intraseasonal through interannual time scales can be associated with a number of identifiable meteorological phenomena, whose further study has been given new impetus by the discovery of their signals in Earth's rotation. Future advances in the subject are apt to occur in connection with new data sets that will help address questions remaining about rapid changes in Earth rotation and the torques responsible for the momentum changes. Also in the coming decade, both new data and modeling approaches should help clarify the role of the oceanic portion of Earth's fluid envelope in the planetary momentum balance.     

Input-output models

Summary Elementary mass balance and export models are explored in relation to eutrophication as caused by phosphorus and nitrogen. New criteria for phosphorus loading are given in relation to the ratio ‘mean depth-water fill-in-time’ . The results suggest that lakes having long water renewal times are much more sensitive to phosphorus loading than would appear from mean depth only. Further, from comparison of the relative residence time of nitrogen and phosphorus, it is deduced that—with increasing eutrophication—the nitrogen metabolism is speeded up beyond the point of simple proportionality which would explain the transition from phosphorus to nitrogen limitation in highly eutrophied lakes. It is further suggested that the principles derived from eutrophication in regard to the metabolism of phosphorus and nitrogen in lakes are applicable also to other environmental compartments and stress factors.

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Zusammenfassung Elementare Massenbilanzen und Exportmodelle werden bezüglich ihrer Bedeutung für die Eutrophierung von Seen mit Phosphor und Stickstoff untersucht. Als neues Kriterium für die Phosphorbelastung wird das Verh?ltnis ?mittlere Wassertiefe-Zeit der Wassererneuerung? eingeführt. Die Beobachtungen lassen vermuten, dass Seen mit langen Wassererneuerungsperioden viel empfindlicher auf die Phosphorbelastung ansprechen, als aus ihrer mittleren Tiefe geschlossen werden k?nnte. Aus dem Vergleich der mittleren Aufenthaltszeiten von Stickstoff und Phosphor ergibt sich, dass mit zunehmender Eutrophie der Stickstoffumsatz weit st?rker beschleunigt wird, als der einfachen Proportionalit?t zu seiner Konzentrationszunahme entsprechen würde. Dies erkl?rt die Verschiebung von Phosphor zu Stickstoff als limitierendem Faktor in hocheutrophierten Seen. Es wird vermutet, dass die Prinzipien, welche bezüglich der Eutrophierung aus dem Umsatz von Phosphor und Stickstoff in Seen abgeleitet werden, auch für andere Lebensr?ume und andere Belastungsfaktoren angewendet werden k?nnen.

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Résumé Un équilibre massive élémentaire et des modèles de sortie ont été explorés en relation avec l’eutrophisation provoquée par le phosphore et l’azote. De nouveaux critères ont été décrits en relation avec le taux ?profondeur moyenne?—durée de remplissage d’eau? . Les résultats suggèrent que les lacs dont la durée de renouvellement de l’eau est longue, sont beaucoup plus sensibles aux charges de phosphore, que ne laisserait appara?tre le critère seul de la profondeur moyenne. De plus, en comparant les durées relatives de séjour de l’azote et du phosphore, on déduit que—avec la progression de l’eutrophisation—le métabolisme de l’azote est accéléré au delà du point de simple proportionalité qui expliquerait la transition du phosphore à l’azote en tant que nutriment limitant dans des lacs fortement eutrophes. En outre, il est suggéré que les principes, dérivant de l’eutrophisation des lacs en relation avec le métabolisme du phosphore et de l’azote, sont également applicables à d’autres compartiments et facteurs de containte de l’environnement.

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Paper given at the Conference on Chemical-Ecological Considerations for Defining the Goals of Water Pollution Control, Kastanienbaum, Switzerland, April 19–21, 1972.     

A new strategy for global climate protection

This essay proposes an innovative institutional strategy for global climate protection, quite distinct from but ultimately complementary to the UNFCCC climate treaty negotiations. Our “building block” strategy relies on a variety of smaller-scale transnational cooperative arrangements, involving not only states, but also subnational jurisdictions, firms, and civil society organizations, to undertake activities whose primary goal is not climate mitigation but which will achieve greenhouse gas reductions as a byproduct. This strategy avoids the problems inherent in developing an enforceable, comprehensive treaty regime by mobilizing other incentives—including economic self-interest, energy security, cleaner air, and furtherance of international development— to motivate a range of actors to cooperate on actions that will also produce climate benefits. The strategy uses three specific models of regime formation (club, linkage, and dominant actor models) which emerge from economics, international relations, and organizational behavior, to develop a variety of transnational regimes that are generally self-enforcing and sustainable, avoiding the free rider and compliance problems endemic in collective action to provide public goods. These regimes will contribute to global climate action not only by achieving emissions reductions in the short term, but also by creating global webs of cooperation and trust, and by linking the building block regimes to the UNFCCC system through greenhouse gas monitoring and reporting systems. We argue that the building blocks regimes would thereby help secure eventual agreement on a comprehensive climate treaty.     

Stability functions based upon shear functions

The stability functions for momentum and heat under a Richardson number formulation are derived from the nondimensional shear functions under a Monin-Obukhov formulation. The Prandtl number is also derived as a function of the Richardson number. Previously, this has been done only in a limited sense. Because the Richardson number formulation is expressed in closed form, iterative techniques are no longer needed in numerical models that use Monin-Obukhov similarity theory. This time-saving approach is made possible by deriving expressions for the friction velocity and temperature in terms of the Richardson-number-dependent stability functions. In addition, the Richardson number approximation in the lowest layer is made to depend explicitly upon the surface roughness.