Stabilization of Bottom Hole Temperature With Finite Circulation Time and Fluid Flow

As an alternative to finite element or finite difference modelling, analytical solutions are derived by the method of Laplace transformation and numerical results obtained for several models of the bottom hole temperature stabilization. Included in the models are the finite circulation time, the thermal property contrast between the borehole mud and the surrounding formation, and the presence of radial or lateral fluid flow in the formation, all of which are found to have significant effects on the dissipation of the thermal disturbance induced by drilling.
The mud circulation is considered to have the effect of either maintaining the borehole mud at a constant temperature or supplying a constant amount of heat per unit length per unit time to the borehole. For small circulation times, the former reduces to the 'zero circulation' model in which the mud circulation creates an instantaneous temperature anomaly at the hole bottom; for small borehole radii, the latter reduces to the line source model and the traditional 'Homer plot'.
For typical drilling operations in which the bottom hole temperatures are measured several hours to several tens of hours after the hole is shut in, the new models generally predict higher equilibrium formation temperatures than does the Horner plot. However, predictions from the various models converge if the BHTs are taken after the hole has been shut in for a period which is greater than about five times the circulation period.     

COMPARING TRADITIONAL METHODS FOR SELECTING CLASS INTERVALS ON CHOROPLETH MAPS*

The most common goal when classing data for choropleth maps is to create homogeneous classes which contain similar data values. None of the four traditional data classing methods examined here (quartile, equal interval, standard deviation, and natural breaks) consistently generalized the experimental data sets into homogeneous classes. These methods were most accurate for data sets with specific distributional characteristics, but none classed all of any type of distribution accurately. Only the optimization method produced reliable and accurate results for all of the experimental data.     

Late Quaternary palaeolimnology of a tropical marl lake: Wallywash Great Pond,Jamaica

Wallywash Great Pond (17° 57 N, 77° 48 W, 7 m a.s.l.) is the largest perennial lake in Jamaica. It occupies a fault trough within the karstic White Limestone. The Great Pond is a hardwater lake with a pH of 8.2–8.6 and an alkalinity of 3.6–3.9 meq 1^–1. Its chemistry is strongly influenced by the spring discharge from the limestone. The lake water is subject to degassing, evaporation and bicarbonate assimilation by submerged plants and algae, resulting in marl precipitation. A 9.23 m core (WGP2), taken from a water depth of 2.8 m, was analysed for magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, carbonate content, mole % MgCO₃ in calcite, and stable isotopes in the fine carbonate fraction. The chronology is based on ten¹⁴C and four U/Th dates. Four main sediment types alternate in the core: marl; organic, calcareous mud; organic mud or peat; and earthy, brown, calcareous mud. The marls represent periods of wet/warm climate during sea-level highstands and the organic deposits, shallower, swampy conditions. In contrast, the brown, calcareous muds were laid down when the lake was dry or ephemeral. The last interglacial (120 000- 106 000 yr BP) is represented by three distinct marl units. After a dry interval, stable, wet/warm conditions set in from 106 000 to 93 000 yr BP. A dry/cool climate prevailed between 93 000 and at least 9500 yr BP. Three subsequent cycles of alternating wet and dry conditions culminated in flooding of the basin by the Black River during the late Holocene. These recent events cannot be accurately dated by¹⁴C due to significant and temporally-variable inputs of dead carbon from the springs.     

VLF radiation from lightning

Summary. Electrical and magnetic fields due to arbitrarily oriented lightning over an imperfectly conducting ground have been obtained. The theory has been applied to K -changes, return strokes and horizontal lightning. The results are in good agreement with the experimental observations previously reported by many workers.     

Shallow-marine sequences as the building blocks of stratigraphy: insights from numerical modelling

Two types of depositional sequences can be defined within the sequence stratigraphic framework: the parasequence and the high‐frequency sequence. Both sequences consist of stacked regressive and transgressive deposits. However, a parasequence forms under conditions of overall sea‐level rise, whereas a high‐frequency sequence forms as the sea level oscillates which results in typical forced regressive deposits during sea‐level fall. Both depositional sequences may develop over comparable temporal (10–100 kyr) and spatial (1–20 km wide and 1–40 m thick) scales. Numerical modelling is used to compare the architecture, preservation potential, internal volumes, bounding surfaces, condensed and expanded sections and facies assemblages of parasequences and high‐frequency sequences. Deposits originating from transgression are less pronounced than their regressive counterparts and consist of either preserved backbarrier deposits or shelf deposits. Shoreface deposits are not preserved during transgression. The second half of the paper evaluates in detail the preservation potential of backbarrier deposits and proposes a mechanism that explains the occurrence of both continuous and discontinuous barrier retreat in terms of varying rates of sea‐level rise and sediment supply. The key to this mechanism is the maximum washover capacity, which plays a part in both barrier shoreline retreat and backbarrier‐lagoonal shoreline retreat. If these two shorelines are not balanced, then the retreat of the coastal system as a whole is discontinuous and in time barrier overstep may take place.