Morphologic classification of Martian craters and some implications

A computer data bank containing information on crater sizes, locations, and morphologies for all craters visible on Mariner 9 wide-angle mapping photography was used to construct a crater morphologic classification. Four general classes were constructed that can be interpreted to represent increasing degrees of crater degradation. Fresh class craters are nearly unmodified and consist of deep bowl-shaped craters and deep, flat-floored craters with terraced walls. The slightly modified class consists of deep flat-floored craters that usually have raised rims, but lack the terracing, central peaks, and hummocky floors indicative of unmodified impact crater morphology. Craters in the modified class are rimless and shallow and those in the ghost class are rimless and extremely shallow. Retention ages for fresh (i.e. unmodified) class craters on equatorial cratered terrain range from millions to billions of years, depending on the impact flux history used. If the trend is toward billions of years, then present degradation rates on Mars are low relative to earlier history and most craters in the degraded classes were probably modified in an early (>3.3 b.y.?) period.     

The Balmer 9 and Balmer 11 lines of He ii in the Sun

We identify the Balmer 9 and 11 lines of He ii at 959 Å and 942 Å in solar spectra. These lines are produced mainly by recombination following photoionization of He ii by coronal XUV radiation. From analysis of the line intensities, we confirm the theoretical model of Avrett et al. (1976), who found that an appreciable amount of He⁺⁺ is present at temperatures of 1–2 × 10⁴ K and that the anomalously strong He ii 304 line is produced primarily by collisional excitation. We also confirm the suggestion of Kohl (1977) that the photoionization-recombination process is more important in active regions than in the quiet Sun, and we find that the 304 line is produced largely by recombination in solar flares.     

Identification of zones of preferential groundwater tracer transport using a mobile downhole fluorometer

A mobile downhole fluorometer was used to detect zones of preferential groundwater tracer transport into an observation well. Identification of such zones is not possible if individual samples are collected over the wells entire screened interval. Laboratory-based tests using the fluorometer, and a purpose-built apparatus demonstrated that the fluorometer could be used with tracers to characterise well water flow regimes. During field investigations in a porous aquifer, the fluorometer monitored tracer concentrations in an observation well with a 12-m-long screen, 10 m down the hydraulic gradient from a fully penetrating injection well. Test results showed that the tracer occurred in the observation well over a discrete 2.5-m-thick interval. Single-well dilution test and vertical-flow data indicated that water entered the well at additional depths, but no tracer was detected at these levels. A numerical model reproducing dilution test concentration profiles indicated that water entered the well in many of these horizons at comparable velocities to those in the tracer-bearing zone. These data suggest that groundwater flow direction varied with depth in the aquifer under investigation. Moreover, simulations of tracer arrival indicated that the tracer distribution observed in the observation well was derived from a horizon that may be no thicker than 0.5 m.

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Resumen Se utilizó un fluorómetro móvil descendente para detectar zonas de transporte preferencial de trazadores de agua subterránea en un pozo de observación. La identificación de tales zonas no es posible si se colectan muestras individuales en todo el intervalo enmallado del pozo. En base a pruebas de laboratorio utilizando el fluorómetro y un aparato especial construido se demostró que el fluorómetro podría utilizarse con trazadores para caracterizar ambientes de flujo de agua en los pozos. Durante investigaciones de campo en un acuífero poroso, el fluorómetro monitoreó concentraciones de trazadores en un pozo de observación con una malla de 12 m de largo, 10 m abajo del gradiente hidráulico de un pozo de inyección que penetra totalmente el acuífero. Los resultados de las pruebas muestran que el trazador se presentó en el pozo de observación en un intervalo discreto de 2.5 m de espesor. Pruebas de dilución en un solo pozo y datos de flujo vertical indicaron que el agua entró al. pozo en profundidades adicionales, pero que no se detectó el trazador en esos niveles. Un modelo numérico que reproduce los perfiles de concentración de las pruebas de dilución indica que el agua entró al. pozo en muchos de estos horizontes en velocidades comparables a las existentes en la zona portadora de trazadores. Estos datos sugieren que la dirección de flujo de agua subterránea varió con la profundidad en el acuífero bajo investigación. Por otra parte, las simulaciones de llegada del trazador indicaron que la distribución del trazador observada en el pozo de observación se derivó de un horizonte cuyo espesor puede no ser mayor de 0.5 m.

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Résumé Un fluorimètre a été utilisé pour détecter les zones découlement préférentiel dun traceur dans un puits dobservation. Les identifications de telles zones nest pas possible si les échantillons individuels sont collectés sur toute les longueurs des parties crépinées du puits. Les tests de laboratoire utilisant un fluorimètre et un dispositif adéquat ont montré que les fluorimètres pouvaient servir à définir les régimes découlement de leau dans les puits. Durant les investigations de terrain dans un aquifère poreux, le fluorimètre a enregistré les concentrations du traceur dans un puits dobservation avec une crépine de 12 m. de long, 10 m sous le gradient hydraulique dans un puits à pénétration totale. Les résultats des tests ont montré que le traceur apparaissait dans un interval discret de 2.5 m de long. Un test de dilution en puits unique et des données découlement vertical ont indiqué que leau rentrait dans le puits à dautres profondeurs, mais le traceur na pas été détecté à ces niveaux. Un modèle numérique reproduisant le test de dilution et le profil de concentration a indiqué que leau entrait dans le puits à ces niveaux à des vitesses comparables de celle du traceur. Ces données suggèrent que lécoulement des eaux souterraines varie avec la profondeur dans laquifère sous la zone dinvestigation. Dailleurs, les simulations de larrivée du traceur ont montré que la distribution des concentrations du traceur dans le puits ne pouvaient pas être dues à une couche plus fine que 0.5 m.

     

Morphology and emplacement of flows from the Deccan Volcanic Province,India

The present study is probably the first of its kind in the Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP) that deals in detail with the morphology and emplacement of the Deccan Trap flows, and employs modern terminology and concepts of flow emplacement. We describe in detail the two major types of flows that occur in this province. Compound pahoehoe flows, similar to those in Hawaii and the Columbia River Basalts (CRB) constitute the older stratigraphic Formations. These are thick flows, displaying the entire range of pahoehoe morphology including inflated sheets, hummocky flows, and tumuli. In general, they show the same three-part structure associated with pahoehoe flows from other provinces. However, in contrast to the CRB, pahoehoe lobes in the DVP are smaller, and hummocky flows are quite common. 'Simple' flows occur in the younger Formations and form extensive sheets capped by highly vesicular, weathered crusts, or flow-top breccias. These flows have few analogues in other provinces. Although considered to be a'a flows by previous workers, the present study clearly reveals that the simple flows differ considerably from typical a'a flows, especially those of the proximal variety. This is very significant in the context of models of flood basalt emplacement. At the same time, they do not display direct evidence of endogenous growth. Understanding the emplacement of these flows will go a long way in determining whether all extensive flows are indeed inflated flows, as has recently been postulated.Most of the studies relating to the emplacement of Continental Flood Basalt (CFB) lavas have relied on observations of flows from the CRB. Much of the current controversy surrounding the emplacement of CFB flows centers around the comparison of Hawaiian lava flows to those from the CRB. We demonstrate that the DVP displays a variety of lava features that are similar to those from the CRB as well as those from Hawaii. This suggests that there may have been more than one mechanism or style for the emplacement of CFB flows. These need to be taken into account before arriving at any general model for flood basalt emplacement.Editorial responsibility: T. Druitt     

Biological evidence of sea-level rise during the last 4500 years on the rocky coasts of continental southwestern France and Corsica

On the rocky coasts of the northwestern Mediterranean basin, biogenic littoral rims built by the coralline rhodophyte Lithophyllum lichenoides develop, whose remains may be preserved for millennia when submerged in a rising sea environment. These remains can be used as biological indicators of recent sea-level variations. Our survey of the continental coasts of Var and Bouches du Rhône, west of Marseilles (southern France) and of northern Corsica shows that relative sea level rose about 1.6 m in the study area during the last 4500 years without exceeding the present datum. The rate of sea-level rise was 0.4 mm per year between 4500 and 1500 yr B.P. and slowed down to 0.2 mm per year from 1500 yr B.P. to present time. There are also morphological indications of an acceleration of the rate of sea-level rise during the last century, supporting the evidence of tide gauges. Regions at the periphery of the above zone (Alpes Maritimes, Italian border zone, and the French and Spanish Catalonia regions) were also surveyed, but a weaker development of Lithophyllum rims and bad preservation of algal remains led to unconvincing dates which could also be linked to regional tectonic trends.     

Amphipod prey of gray whales in the northern Bering Sea: Comparison of biomass and distribution between the 1980s and 2002–2003

The ampeliscid amphipod community in the Chirikov Basin of the northern Bering Sea was a focus of study during the 1980s because they were a major food for the Eastern North Pacific (ENP) population of gray whales Eschrichtius robustus. Information from the 1980s benthic investigations, published accounts of ENP gray whale population trends and the occurrence in 1999–2000 of an unusual number of gray whale mortalities prompted concern that the whale population may have exceeded the carrying capacity of its food base. Therefore, during two cruises per year between June and September, 2002 and 2003, we resampled the 20 stations occupied during the 1980s, to determine if there had been any significant changes in ampeliscid abundance and biomass. During 2002–2003, average ampeliscid dry weight biomass was about 28±10 g m⁻² (95% confidence interval), a decline of nearly 50% from maximum values in the 1980s. Amphipod length measurements indicated that the declines were due mainly to the absence of the larger animals (20–30 mm length). Two hypotheses were considered regarding the amphipod declines: gray whale predation and climate. Ampeliscid production (105 kcal m⁻² yr⁻¹) and gray whale energy requirements (1.6×10⁸ kcal individual⁻¹ yr⁻¹) indicated that as little as 3–6% of the current estimate of the ENP gray whale population could remove 10–20% of the annual ampeliscid production from the study site in 2002–2003, a finding consistent with the hypothesis that top-down control by foraging whales was the primary cause of the observed declines. A 10-yr time series of temperature near the bottom in the Bering Strait and northward transport did not reveal a consistent trend between 1990 and 2001, suggesting that climate influences were not the major cause of the observed declines. Arctic ampeliscids have slow growth rates and long generation times; therefore the ampeliscid community may require decades to recover to densities observed in the 1980s. Predicted warming trends in the northern Bering Sea could impact ampeliscid recovery by lowering primary production or altering the community composition of the benthos.