Should the use of standardized baselines in the CDM be mandatory?

There has been considerable debate on the merits of standardized baselines (SBLs) in the clean development mechanism (CDM), and how such baselines could reduce transaction costs for CDM projects. It has not been considered whether the voluntary versus mandatory use of SBLs by CDM project developers can affect the environmental integrity of the CDM. An example is given in which SBLs are applied to a homogeneous output industry in order to illustrate how the voluntary use of SBLs could lead – even with relatively stringent benchmarks – to over-crediting of emission reduction credits.     

Environmental and Cultural Implications of Visitor Access in the Kimberley Region,Australia

The Kimberley coast in Australia's far north-west is the traditional country and home of a number of Indigenous groups and hosts some of the country's richest cultural heritage, most spectacular rock art, scenery and wildlife, making it an attractive tourism destination. A growing expedition cruise industry provides the main means of visitor access to remote coastal sites and offers excursions to shore-based attractions in what are mostly Aboriginal Reserve lands. In light of concerns about environmental and cultural site impacts resulting from increasing visitor numbers, this study examined biophysical site impacts along access trails to shore-based attractions and used qualitative methods to ascertain cultural impacts. The synthesis of the findings highlights that cultural concerns arising from visitor access without having sought traditional owner consent for such access, combined with a lack of traditional owner involvement in the planning, management or running of visitor activities, overshadow currently low environmental impacts of onshore expedition cruise activities. To overcome the continuing impasse regarding the issue of unsanctioned visitor access, the Kimberley urgently needs a coordinated approach by key stakeholders and the traditional owners which recognises and acknowledges the historical context. Such a process would facilitate tourism activities to become culturally sustainable.     

The lens and source of the optical Einstein ring gravitational lens ER 0047–2808

We perform a detailed analysis of the optical gravitational lens ER 0047–2808 imaged with the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 on the Hubble Space Telescope . Using software specifically designed for the analysis of resolved gravitational lens systems, we focus on how the image alone can constrain the mass distribution in the lens galaxy. We find that the data are of sufficient quality to strongly constrain the lens model with no a priori assumptions about the source. Using a variety of mass models, we find statistically acceptable results for elliptical isothermal-like models with an Einstein radius of 1.17 arcsec. An elliptical power-law model  (Σ∝ R ^−β)  for the surface mass density favours a slope slightly steeper than isothermal with  β= 1.08 ± 0.03  . Other models including a constant mass-to-light ratio (M/L), pure Navarro, Frenk & White halo and (surprisingly) an isothermal sphere with external shear are ruled out by the data. We find the galaxy light profile can only be fit with a Sérsic plus point-source model. The resulting total  M/L _B   contained within the images is  4.7  h ₆₅± 0.3  . In addition, we find the luminous matter is aligned with the total mass distribution within a few degrees. This is the first time a resolved optical gravitational lens image has been quantitatively reproduced using a non-parametric source.
The source, reconstructed by the software, is revealed to have two bright regions, with an unresolved component inside the caustic and a resolved component straddling a fold caustic. The angular size of the entire source is ∼0.1 arcsec and its (unlensed) Lyα flux is  3 × 10⁻¹⁷ erg s⁻¹ cm⁻²  .     

Are Groundwater Level Data Collected by Citizen Scientists Trustworthy? A Cautionary Tale

Public participation in groundwater projects is increasing, however, the efficacy of the data collected in such studies, is not well-documented in the literature. In this study, the authors describe a citizen science project focused on measuring and recording groundwater levels in an aquifer and evaluate whether the groundwater data collected by the participants are trustworthy. A total of 31 participants were initially recruited to measure and record groundwater levels from 29 monitoring wells on a barrier island. Following recruitment, the authors provided training to the citizen scientists by introducing groundwater concepts, and showing the participants how to measure, record and report groundwater level data (over an 81-day period) with an electronic water level meter. The water level data recorded by the citizen scientists (i.e., 35 time series datasets with over 450 unique measurements) were then compared to high frequency data recorded by automated water level loggers that were already deployed in the groundwater monitoring wells to assess the trustworthiness of the data. Trustworthiness was evaluated using measures of reliability (i.e., consistency in measuring the same thing), validity (i.e., degree to which results are truthful), and other standard graphical and statistical techniques. The results suggest that with proper training, guidance, and motivation, citizen scientists can collect trustworthy groundwater level data that could be useful for monitoring the sustainability of aquifers and managing of groundwater levels. It is noted however, that such positive outcomes require significant investments of time and effort on the part of the project managers.     

CONCURRENT STABILIZATION OF SOME INTERIOR DUNE FIELDS IN MICHIGAN

Inland dunes occur over a large part of east-central lower Michigan, where they mantle glaciolacustrine and outwash surfaces that were exposed around 12,000 yrs. B.P. The dunes are parabolic, with northwest-oriented limbs, and occur in swampy landscapes, suggesting that paleoclimatic conditions at the time of their formation were much drier and possibly windier. In order to determine whether the dunes stabilized concurrently or randomly in time and space, surface soils were studied on 30 dunes in the area and quantitatively analyzed for relative differences. Soils data from the dunes indicate concurrent stabilization, following a period of regional mobilization of aeolian sand. Surface soils have formed by podzolization, in uniform parent materials, and are morphologically similar throughout the area. All the soils are weakly developed, with subtle variations on a A-E-Bs-BC-C horizonation sequence. Munsell colors of Bs horizons are remarkably uniform, with 27 of 30 sites exhibiting values of 4 and chromas of 6. Chemical data suggest that Fe and Al translocation has been uniform throughout the region. When compared with soils of known age in northwest lower Michigan, the data indicate that dunes in the region had stabilized at least by 4000 yrs. B.P., leaving an approximately 8000-yr. interval in which they could have formed. In contrast to the prevailing southwesterly winds of today, dune-forming winds were dominantly from the northwest. [Key words: aeolian sedimentation, dunes, soil, Great Lakes, Michigan.]     

TEMPORAL STATISTICS: AN APPLICATION IN SNOWFALL CLIMATOLOGY

A method is introduced for the analysis of temporal distributions of climatic data based on a comparison of a variable's frequency distribution in the time dimension to a standard bell-shaped curve through time. The following statistics are defined using mean monthly snowfall data: the temporal mean, which is the average time for accumulation of 50% of the annual snowfall total; the temporal standard deviation, which characterizes the mean annual spread of snowfall accumulation about the mean; temporal skewness, which characterizes the symmetry of the annual snowfall distribution; temporal kurtosis, which measures the peakedness of the annual distribution; and temporal correlation, which quantifies the degree of association between two temporal distributions. Analysis of snowfall data demonstrates the utility of temporal statistics for quantifying temporal and geographic variations in a climatic variable's seasonal distribution. [Key words: snowfall, climatology, temporal statistics.]     

Hydrological and meteorological data from research catchments at the Marcell Experimental Forest,Minnesota, USA

The Marcell Experimental Forest (MEF) in northern Minnesota, USA, with hydrological research and monitoring of peatland catchments in a low-topographic relief landscape, contrasts with the mountainous terrain that typifies most research catchments. Six research catchments were instrumented and hydrological and meteorological monitoring was initiated during 1960. Paired-catchment studies, which started during 1969, have been used to assess land management and environmental change effects on forests, water availability, and biogeochemistry. Over the decades, the research and collaborations have proliferated to include new monitoring and ecosystem experiments. We provide an overview of available datasets and access information for hydrological and meteorological data. Data on streamflow, water table elevation, precipitation, snow, ground frost, air temperature, soil moisture, upland runoff, and water chemistry are discoverable with associated metadata and are archived through several Web-based, community repositories. The research programme is ongoing and we anticipate updates on an annual or more frequent basis. Additionally, we aim to release other physical, chemical, and isotopic measurements associated with long-term catchment monitoring and studies at the MEF.     

Field test of sub‐basalt hydrocarbon exploration with marine controlled source electromagnetic and magnetotelluric data

The recent use of marine electromagnetic technology for exploration geophysics has primarily focused on applying the controlled source electromagnetic method for hydrocarbon mapping. However, this technology also has potential for structural mapping applications, particularly when the relative higher frequency controlled source electromagnetic data are combined with the lower frequencies of naturally occurring magnetotelluric data. This paper reports on an extensive test using data from 84 marine controlled source electromagnetic and magnetotelluric stations for imaging volcanic sections and underlying sediments on a 128‐km‐long profile. The profile extends across the trough between the Faroe and Shetland Islands in the North Sea. Here, we focus on how 2.5D inversion can best recover the volcanic and sedimentary sections. A synthetic test carried out with 3D anisotropic model responses shows that vertically transverse isotropy 2.5D inversion using controlled source electromagnetic and magnetotelluric data provides the most accurate prediction of the resistivity in both volcanic and sedimentary sections. We find the 2.5D inversion works well despite moderate 3D structure in the synthetic model. Triaxial inversion using the combination of controlled source electromagnetic and magnetotelluric data provided a constant resistivity contour that most closely matched the true base of the volcanic flows. For the field survey data, triaxial inversion of controlled source electromagnetic and magnetotelluric data provides the best overall tie to well logs with vertically transverse isotropy inversion of controlled source electromagnetic and magnetotelluric data a close second. Vertical transverse isotropy inversion of controlled source electromagnetic and magnetotelluric data provided the best interpreted base of the volcanic horizon when compared with our best seismic interpretation. The structural boundaries estimated by the 20‐Ω·m contour of the vertical resistivity obtained by vertical transverse isotropy inversion of controlled source electromagnetic and magnetotelluric data gives a maximum geometric location error of 11% with a mean error of 1.2% compared with the interpreted base of the volcanic horizon. Both the model study and field data interpretation indicate that marine electromagnetic technology has the potential to discriminate between low‐resistivity prospective siliciclastic sediments and higher resistivity non‐prospective volcaniclastic sediments beneath the volcanic section.