Crustal and upper-mantle structure of the Baltic Shield investigated by a combined interpretation of deep-seismic-sounding data and surface-wave analysis

P- and S-wave velocity distributions obtained from DSS measurement have been used as a constraint in the inversion of surface-wave dispersion data. The combined interpretation was made as an attempt to enhance the resulting velocity models and to test the possibility to draw conclusions about the density distribution. The result indicates a potential value of a combined interpretation but it is obvious that very accurate velocity distributions are needed. The achieved density distribution is in good agreement with reported densities derived from gravimetric studies.     

Verification of the Litho-spheric Structure along Profile Uppsala-Prague Using Surface Wave Dispersion

Experimental dispersion curves of Rayleigh and Love waves along the Uppsala-Prague profile have been determined using records of several Italian earthquakes. To interpret the dispersion data, results of previous geophysical investigations in this region were first analyzed. Seven blocks of the crust and upper mantle were distinguished along the profile on the basis of deep seismic sounding and other seismic data. Layered models were proposed for these blocks. Computation of Rayleigh and Love waves shows a large differentiation of theoretical dispersion curves for the northern (Precambrian) and southern (Palaeozoic) part of the profile. A laterally inhomogeneous model for theUppsala - Prague profile, composed of the seven blocks, satisfies the surface wave data for the profile. Moreover, a mean layered model for the whole profile has also been proposed.     

Atmospheric input of nitrogen into the North Sea: ANICE project overview

The aim of the atmospheric nitrogen inputs into the coastal ecosystem (ANICE) project is to improve transport–chemistry models that estimate nitrogen deposition to the sea. To achieve this, experimental and modelling work is being conducted which aims to improve understanding of the processes involved in the chemical transformation, transport and deposition of atmospheric nitrogen compounds. Of particular emphasis within ANICE is the influence of coastal zone processes. Both short episodes with high deposition and chronic nitrogen inputs are considered in the project. The improved transport–chemistry models will be used to assess the atmospheric inputs of nitrogen compounds into the European regional seas (the North Sea is studied as a prototype) and evaluate the impact of various emission reduction strategies on the atmospheric nitrogen loads. Assessment of the impact of atmospheric nitrogen on coastal ecosystems will be based on comparisons of phytoplankton nitrogen requirements, other external nitrogen inputs to the ANICE area of interest and the direct nitrogen fluxes provided by ANICE. Selected results from both the experimental and modelling components are presented here. The experimental results show the large spatial and temporal variability in the concentrations of gaseous nitrogen compounds, and their influences on fluxes. Model calculations show the strong variation of both concentrations and gradients of nitric acid at fetches of up to 25 km. Aerosol concentrations also show high temporal variability and experimental evidence for the reaction between nitric acid and sea salt aerosol is provided by size-segregated aerosol composition measured at both sides of the North Sea. In several occasions throughout the experimental period, air mass back trajectory analysis showed connected flow between the two sampling sites (the Weybourne Atmospheric Observatory on the North Norfolk coast of the UK and Meetpost Noordwijk, a research tower at 9 km off the Dutch coast). Results from the METRAS/SEMA mesoscale chemistry transport model system for one of these cases are presented. Measurements of aerosol and rain chemical composition, using equipment mounted on a commercial ferry, show variations in composition across the North Sea. These measurements have been compared to results obtained with the transport–chemistry model ACDEP which calculates the atmospheric inputs into the whole North Sea area. Finally, the results will be made available for the assessment of the impact of atmospheric nitrogen on coastal ecosystems.     

Review of GRANAT observations of gamma-ray bursts

The GRANAT observatory was launched into a high apogee orbit on 1 December, 1989. Three instruments onboard GRANAT - PHEBUS, WATCH and SIGMA are able to detect gamma-ray bursts in a very broad energy range from 6 keV up to 100 MeV. Over 250 gamma-ray bursts were detected. We discuss the results of the observations of the time histories and spectral evolution of the detected events provided by the different instruments in different energy ranges. Short Gamma-Ray Bursts (< 2 s) have 10 ms structure in their time histories. They have harder energy spectra than the long (> 2 s) events. Evidence of the existence of four differently behaving componenents in gamma-ray burst spectra is discussed. Statistical properties of the gamma-ray burst sources based on the 5 years of observations with ( 10^–6 erg/cm²) sensitivity as well as the results of high sensitivity ( 10^–8 erg/cm²) search for Gamma-Ray Bursts within the SIGMA telescope field of view are reviewed.     

Characteristics, development and utilization of geothermal resources- a Nordic perspective

Geothermal energy is classified as a renewable energy source and it utilizes the heat generated in the earth primarily from the natural radioactive decay of isotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium. Heat is extracted from the earth to generate geothermal energy via a carrier, usually water occurring either in the liquid or steam phase. In the late 19th century and the early 20th century, the first developments of geothermal resources for power generation and household heating got underway successfully. Many of these geothermal fields are still being utilized today, proving their sustainability. Today geothermal energy is being utilized in more than 72 countries around the world and of the Nordic countries Iceland and Sweden have been in the forefront in each of their respective fields. While geothermal heat pumps are widely used for space heating in Sweden, geothermal energy covers 55% of the primary energy consumption in Iceland where it is used for space heating, power generation and industrial purposes. Future developments aim at expanding the range of viable geothermal resources by improving the capabilities to generate electricity from geothermal resources at temperatures as low as 100℃, as well as developing geothermal resources where water needs to be introduced, so-called hot dry rock resources. But the biggest expansion is expected to continue to be in the installations of geothermal heat pumps.     

Modelling fundamental waiting time distributions for earthquake sequences

The distribution of waiting times between time-neighbouring events for a time series obeying the Omori law is examined theoretically and numerically with the aim of understanding the characteristics of these distributions, how these characteristics change (e.g. scale) with the parameters of the Omori series, and thus how empirical waiting time data may be correctly interpreted. It is found that the waiting time distribution, for a single Omori aftershock sequence, consists in general of two power law segments followed by a rapid decay at larger waiting times. The analyses are illustrated using real data from the SIL network on Iceland. This data often shows characteristics predominantly consistent with the Omori law, but there are significant exceptions. We conclude that waiting time distributions and related statistical analysis has meaningful potential for the analysis of earthquake data sets, as a step towards developing physical models of the earthquake process.