Cross-stratified calcarenites from New Zealand: subaqueous dunes in a cool-water, Oligo-Miocene seaway

Cross-bedded, cool-water, bioclastic limestones of the Te Kuiti Group on the North Island of New Zealand are composed primarily of bryozoans, echinoderms, and benthic foraminifers. Their prominent, large-scale, unidirectional cross-stratification is interpreted as produced by migrating subaqueous dunes on the floor of a 50–100 km wide, north-east-trending seaway in water depths of 40–60 m. These dunes are thought to have developed in response to strong, seaway-parallel, tidal currents combined with a north-east-directed, set-up or oceanic current. Cross-stratification is organized into four hierarchical levels: (1) cross-lamination; (2) first-order sets; (3) second-order sets; and (4) cross-stratified successions. The levels are based on increasing degrees of internal complexity. Distinct attributes such as internal organization, cross-set thickness, foreset shape, and lower bounding-surface shape are used to describe and interpret the cross-stratification. All these attributes are here integrated in a new and expanded classification of unidirectional cross-stratification that emphasizes flow and bedform dynamics rather than overall set shape. Individual cross-stratified successions are interpreted to have formed by dunes with varying sinuosity, superposition, and flow history, under conditions of different current strength but constant sediment production. Horizontally bedded successions are the result of robust, active dune fields that grew during times of vigorous sediment transport. Formset successions were produced from large compound dunes and are the expression of languid and decaying dune fields that developed during times of decreasing sediment transport. These decaying dunes were gradually smothered by continuously and locally produced bioclastic sediment. Formset cross-stratified successions are most likely to develop in carbonates, where the sediment is produced in place, than in terrigenous clastics where the sediment is imported.     

Microbial micritic carbonates in uppermost Permian reefs, Sichuan Basin, southern China: some similarities with Recent travertines

The uppermost Permian Chuenmuping reef formed on the western side of a carbonate platform situated in the eastern Sichuan Basin, southern China. Contrasts exist between this western patch reef and the better known Jiantianba barrier reef complex on the eastern platform margin in western Hubei Province, 250 km to the east. Microbial micritic carbonates form significant components of the Chuenmuping reef limestones. Three types of fabric can be identified: irregular, clotted and scalloped-laminated. An additional, cuneiform fabric has been found only in fore-reef facies at Jiantianba. Irregular fabric is comparable with the surface of presently forming travertines at Rapolano Terme, central Italy, which are produced by calcification of cyanobacteria. Clotted fabric shows indistinct peloids which tend to lack rims, and are amalgamated into irregular masses, some of which exhibit bush-like arrangements where traces of filaments can be seen. Traces of filaments are observed in both dark and light layers in the scalloped-laminated fabric, again suggesting a microbial origin. Cuneiform fabric consists of peloids and filaments, and closely resembles deposits in Quaternary travertines which may have been caused by bacterial action. Chuenmuping reef shows a shallowing sequence in normal marine conditions. The micritic fabrics interpreted here as microbial occur more commonly in the upper part of the reef. This indicates that microbial micrites, with a cementing role, formed coevally with reef growth within the upper part of the photic zone.     

Changes in velocity profiles at roughness transitions in coarse grained channels

Heterogeneous coarse grained channels are often characterized by local transitions in bed surface roughness. Distinct spatial zones in terms of grain size have been reported, for example sand ribbons and bedload sheets. The transition from areas of finer to coarser grained surface sediment is often abrupt. However, the effects of these transitions on the shape of the velocity profile and associated shear velocity and roughness length estimates have not been investigated in detail in coarse grained channels. This paper therefore examines the combined effects of a sudden change in surface roughness and of superimposed scales of resistancé on the structure of the turbulent boundary layer. Measurements along roughness transitions from smooth to rough beds were conducted in a flume using artificial roughness features and in a natural gravel bed river. Immediately at the transition from a zone of close packed roughness to a rougher section dominated by obstacles superimposed on the more or less uniform roughness surface, boundary shear stress and roughness length increase considerably. Downstream from this transition, velocity profiles become concave upwards. Downstream and upstream sections show significant differences in terms of near bed velocities (deceleration downstream of the transition), velocity gradient and turbulence intensity of the streamwise velocity component. Comparing the mean velocity profiles corresponding to these two different roughness surfaces gives some indication of the proportion of total shear velocity (or shear stress) associated with the pressure drag produced by large and isolated obstacles.     

Coral-stromatolite reef framework, Upper Miocene, Almería, Spain

Stromatolitic crusts on stick-like and platy Porites corals forming Messinian reefs in Almería played an important role in supporting and binding the brittle corals. The crusts were previously regarded as probable marine cements. However, their clotted, peloidal, and micritic fabrics are directly comparable with those of stromatolites. They accreted allochthonous grains even on vertical faces, and include bushy fabrics closely comparable with those produced by cyanobacterial calcification. They contain numerous fenestrae, exhibit rapid fabric variation, and locally form micro-columns and laminated domes. Their similarities to peloid micrite crusts in Recent reefs suggest that at least some of these Recent crusts are microbial in origin, even though they have widely been interpreted as marine cements. The sedimentary effects of crust development substantially affected both the morphology and relief of the reefs and the generation of reefal clasts. Binding of the reef-frame in the Pinnacle and Thicket zones in the lower and middle parts of the reef created a rigid margin which shed large (commonly up to 5 m) cuboidal blocks of coral-stromatolite frame. The blocks broke along planes of weakness provided by the vertical Porites sticks and were deposited on the Fore-Reef Slope. In the uppermost parts of the reefs crusts dominate the structure, constituting 80% or more of the rock. Veneers up to 15 cm thick encrust thin irregular Porites plates to create a solid Reef Crest Zone which has not been recognized before. The coral-stromatolite framework is associated with echinoids, crustose corallines and halimedacean algae which, together with the scleractinians, indicate normal marine salinity throughout reef growth.     

Low-grade Metamorphism of the Karmutsen Volcanics, Vancouver Island, British Columbia

Low-variance assemblages occurring within amygdules of Karmutsenlavas from the Elk Creek and Upper Campbell Lake areas, VancouverIsland, British Columbia, provide important constraints on thepressure and temperature of metamorphism as well as on the compositionof the attendant fluid. The P-T stability of the assemblagesepidote-muscovite-K-feldspar-prehnite and epidote-prehnite-quartz-wairakitecoupled with mean isochores derived from homogenization temperaturesof H₂O inclusions within amygdaloidal quartz indicate that theUpper Campbell Lake area was subjected to metamorphism at 1?5kb (?0?5 kb), 260 ?C (? 15?C) and the Elk Creek area at somewhatlower P or higher T. Isobaric T-a(CO₂) diagrams show that the occurrence of epidote-oligoclase,prehnite-orthoclase-albite, and prehnite-andesine assemblagescollected from the Elk Creek area is consistent with the P-Tconstraints and that these assemblages formed in water-richfluids containing very low concentrations of CO₂. The presenceof Ca-zeolite-epidote assemblages in the Upper Campbell Lakearea is also compatible with P-T estimates. The consistencyof epidote and prehnite rim compositions in low-variance assemblagesand the lack of incompatible phases in these assemblages demonstratethat equilibrium was obtained on limited domains within amygdules. Because epidote and prehnite compositions in low-variance assemblagesare very sensitive to changes in concentration of CO2, low-varianceassemblages involving these phases can serve as monitors offluid composition. It is postulated that low-variance assemblagesin Karmutsen flows originated by reaction of previously formed,high-variance assemblages with infiltrating CO₂-bearing aqueousfluids during a subsequent hydrothermal event. These fluidspreferentially exploited more permeable amygdaloidal portionsof the Karmutsen flows. The low-variance assemblages not onlyrecord the extremely H₂O-rich composition of the permeatingfluid, but also outline the paths the fluid took. ^* Offprint requests to B. R. Frost     

Analysis of Standard Reference Materials for Zr,Nb, Hf and Ta by ICP-MS after Lithium Metaborate Fusion and Cupferron Separation*

Results are presented of the determination of Zr, Nb, Hf and Ta in 74 standard reference materials by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Samples are decomposed by fusion with lithium metaborate and the analytes are separated prior to analysis by precipitation of their cupferrates. Calibration is made using synthetic solutions and internal standardization with Ru (for Zr and Nb) and Re (for Hf and Ta). Accuracy is assessed by comparison with recommended values and precision is evaluated by replicate analyses of five SRMs.     

ASSESSING THE DICE MODEL: UNCERTAINTY ASSOCIATED WITH THE EMISSION AND RETENTION OF GREENHOUSE GASES

Analysis of the DICE model indicates that it contains unsupported assumptions, simple extrapolations, and misspecifications that cause it to understate the rate at which economic activity emits greenhouse gases and the rate at which the atmosphere retains greenhouse gases. The model assumes a world population that is 2 billion people lower than the base case' projected by demographers. The model extrapolates a decline in the quantity of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of economic activity that is possible only if there is a structural break in the economic and engineering factors that have determined this ratio over the last century. The model uses a single equation to simulate the rate at which greenhouse gases accumulate in the atmosphere. The forecast for the airborne fraction generated by this equation contradicts forecasts generated by models that represent the physical and chemical processes which determine the movement of carbon from the atmosphere to the ocean. When these unsupported assumptions, simple extrapolations, and misspecifications are remedied with simple fixes, the economic impact of global climate change increases several fold. Similarly, these remedies increase the impact of uncertainty on estimates for the economic impact of global climate change. Together, these results indicate that considerable scientific and economic research is needed before the threat of climate change can be dismissed with any degree of certainty.     

Zonal Distribution of Variations in Structural State of Alkali Feldspar within the Rader Creek Pluton, Boulder Batholith, Montana

The granodioritic Rader Creek pluton of the composite Boulderbatholith contains microperthitic alkali feldspar of bulk compositionOr₆₅ to Or₈₆ with a structurally variable potassic phase. Completecell parameters, 2V measurements, and bulk composition are givenfor 11 feldspar samples. The 131 and 131 reflections for theseand 58 additional samples show the following structural typesin the potassic phase: orthoclase only; orthoclase with subordinatemaximum or near-maximum microcline (obliquity = 0.75–1.00);orthoclase with subordinate intermediate microcline (obliquity= 0.64–0.71); and intermediate microcline (obliquity =0.56–0.77) with subordinate orthoclase. Within the plutondifferent feldspar structural types occur in zones whose boundariesare approximately parallel to contacts with younger intrusiverocks cutting the Rader Creek pluton but are, in places, nearlyperpendicular to zonation within the pluton defined by rockcomposition. In general, the orthoclase zone is closest to thecontact with younger intrusives; the intermediate microclinezone is the most distant. Bulk compositions of alkali feldsparare more potassic in the orthoclase zone than elsewhere. Thedata suggest a complex history for the alkali feldspar, involvingat least two stages: 1. Exsolution and partial inversion oforthoclase to intermediate microcline during cooling of theRader Creek pluton; 2. Transformation of the intermediate-microclineassemblage to orthoclase during reheating of the pluton at thetime of intrusion of younger plutons of the batholith. The transitionalstage in this transformation is characterized by orthoclaseco-existing with subordinate microcline, whose obliquity usuallyapproaches that of maximum microcline.