The coalification pattern in the Northern Apennines and its palaeogeothermic and tectonic significance

The rocks of the Northern Apennines predominantly consist of non-metamorphic terrigeneous deposits (flysches and molasses) some of which are preorogenic, some synorogenic and others postorogenic with respect to the nappe tectonics (Miocene). As plant fragments frequently occur in these sediments, a study of coal rank based on reflectance measurements on vitrinites (% Rm = mean value of the random reflectance in non polarized light) contributes to the clarification of the relation between the orogenic and the palaeogeothermal development. The determination of the Rm values of more than 180 samples from outcrops and three deep drillings revealed some important features. Within the pile of Liguride and Tuscanide nappes, the coal rank increases from the uppermost nappe to the lower nappes until lowgrade metamorphism is reached in the Lower Tuscanides. In the single nappes the rank decreases from the Tyrrhenian coast (internal zone) towards the Po Plain (external zone). This regional trend is disturbed only locally by young post-coalification tectonics. In the uppermost Liguride nappe (M. Antola Unit) a pre-Oligocene (i. e. pre-Apenninic) thermal event was detected. Postorogenic heating is connected with the magmatic activity of Late Miocene to Pleistocene age in Tuscany. Except for these preorogenic and postorogenic thermal events, the main coalification is generally younger than the emplacement of the nappes in the nappe pile during the Apenninic orogeny in the Miocene, but it is older than the last thrust movements and the final tensional tectonics in the internal zones of the chain. For these reasons, the main regional thermal event has to be considered as synorogenic or, more precisely, as late-synorogenic.     

Plio-pleistocene volcanism in the Andean Cordillera of Central Chile (33∘ – 40∘ S. L.)

Recent field studies in the Andean Cordillera of Central Chile (33–40 S. L.) have shown a widespread distribution around the Chile-Argentina border of pliopleistocene volcanic and pyroclastic flow (5-1 m. y. K/Ar). The older ages are found in Rio Blanco (Santiago) area and the younger in the Cola de Zorro area. They cover horizontal to sub-horizontally, with strong unconformity their meso-cenozoic basement.In the Rio Blanco area the most silicic rocks are dactic and rhyolitic ignimbrites and lava flows. They are similar to the Rhyolitic Formation (Zeil andPichler, 1967) of northern Chile.South of 36 S. L. most of the rocks are calcalkaline basalts and andesites except for the samples from the Pino Hachado area, which plot nearRittman's alkaline field. Chemical inhomogenety of the plio-pleistocene volcanic rocks is thus present in the Andes of Central Chile.

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Zusammenfassung Neue Arbeiten über die Geologie der Cordillera de los Andes im zentralen Abschnitt Chiles (33–40 S) haben eine enorme Verbreitung von plio/pleistozänen Vulkaniten (5-1 m. a.) vor allem in der Grenzregion mit Argentinien ergeben. Die höheren Alter fand man im Gebiet von Rio Blanco (Santiago) und die jüngsten im Gebiet von Cola de Zorro.Die Vulkanite bedecken mit einer horizontalen bis subhorizontalen Verbreitung und mit einer scharfen Diskordanz alle Gesteinsserien des Mesozoikums und Känozoikums.Im Gebiet von Rio Blanco handelt es sich um Ignimbrite rhyolitischer und dacitischer Zusammensetzung. Die kieselsäurereichsten Proben sind ähnlich den Gesteinen der Rhyolit-Formation vonZeil &Pichler (1967) in Nordchile.Südlich von 36 S hat die Mehrheit der Proben eine andesitische und basaltische Zusammensetzung. Es sind kalkalkaline Gesteine mit Ausnahme der Proben von Pino Hachado, die einen starken alkalinen Trend nach dem Diagramm vonRittmann haben. Auf diese Weise ergibt sich eine chemische Inhomogenität bei den plio/pleistozänen Vulkaniten von Zentralchile.

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Resumen Los más recientes trabajos de geología de campo en la Cordillera de los Andes de Chile Central (33–40 L. S.) han evidenciado enormes extensiones de rocas volcánicas pliopleistocénicas (5-1 m. a.) sobre todo en el área limítrofe con Argentina. Las mayores edades fueron encontradas en el area de Rio Blanco (Santiago) y las más jóvenes en el area de Cola de Zorro.Las rocas volcánicas plio-pleistocénicas cubren con disposición horizontal a subhorizontal y con fuerte discordancia a todas las rocas subyacentes del Meso y Cenozoico.En el area de Río Blanco las rocas son ignimbritas de composición riolítica a dacítica y corresponden a las muestras más silícicas similar a rocas de la Formación Riolítica del norte de Chile deZeil yPichler (1967).Al sur del paralelo 36 S la mayoría de las muestras son de composición andesítica y basáltica de naturaleza calcoalcalina excepto las muestras de Pino Hachado que presentan fuerte afînidad alcalina según el diagrama deRittmann. De esta manera se muestra que existe inhomogeneidad química en las rocas volcánicas plios-pleistocénicas de Chile Central.

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Cordillera de los Andes (33°–40° S) , . - (), --. , , . - . 36° . - , . . . , - .

     

Damage of topaz and other minerals in the electron microscope

Summary Hydroxyl bearing topaz suffers beam-damage in the electron microscope. Irradiation by the beam rapidly produces contrast from strain fields around small needle-shaped pores about 2–5 nm wide and 30–120 nm long, produced by the loss of hydrogen as water and/or hydrogen fluoride. In the majority of cases the damage ceases after a short period of time, and the topaz electron diffraction pattern remains apparently unchanged. In a few cases complete breakdown of the topaz occurs to produce mullite and/or fine-grained -alumina, the latter usually being sputtered onto the carbon support film. The different degrees of breakdown which are found in the electron beam are similar to reactions which occur on heating in air. Although the main factor which determines the degree of beam-induced damage which occurs is believed to be temperature, the heating effect of the beam is alone unlikely to cause the reactions. The lowering of reaction temperature is attributed to mechanically induced enhancement of diffusion in the electron beam and to the weakening of chemical bonds by ionisation effects. The strain fields found in topaz were also produced in samples of humite and apatite observed in the electron microscope, and the formation of fine-grained metal oxides was found in several silicates and phosphates.

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Zerstörung von Topas und anderen Mineralen im Elektronenmikroskop

Zusammenfassung Hydroxil-hältige Topase unterliegen im Elektronenmikroskop einer Zerstörung durch den Elektronenstrahl. Durch die Bestrahlung entstehen rasch Kontraste von gestörten Bereichen rund um kleine nadelförmige Poren von etwa 2–5 nm Durchmesser und 30–120 nm Länge, die durch den Verlust von Wasserstoff als Wasser und/oder Hydrogenfluorid verursacht werden. Meist hört die Zerstörung nach kurzer Zeit auf und das Elektronen-Beugungsbild des Topases bleibt anscheinend unverändert. In wenigen Fällen kommt es zu einem kompletten Zusammenbruch des Topases und es entsteht Mullit und/oder feinkörniges -Al₂O₃. Die unterschiedlichen Grade des Zusammenbruchs, die im Elektronenstrahl beobachtet werden, sind Reaktionen ähnlich, die beim Erhitzen in Luft auftreten. Obwohl als Hauptfaktor, der den Grad der Strahlinduzierten Zerstörung bestimmt, die Temperatur angenommen werden kann, ist es unwahrscheinlich, daß der Hitzeeffekt des Strahls allein die Reaktionen verursacht. Die Erniedrigung der Reaktionstemperatur wird der mechanisch bedingten Erhöhung der Durchdringungsfähigkeit des Elektronenstrahls und der Schwächung der chemischen Bindung durch Ionisierungseffekte zugeschrieben. Die im Elektronenmikroskop in Topas gefundenen gestörten Bereiche wurden auch in Proben von Humit und Apatit beobachtet; in verschiedenen Silikaten und Phosphaten wurde die Bildung feinkörniger Metalloxide gefunden.

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With 3 Figures

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Dedicated to Professor Dr.Josef Zemann on the occasion of his 6oth birthday.     

New data on the „Indosinian“ Orogeny from Central Thailand

The main aspects of the geosynclinal and orogenic evolution of the Petchabun foldbelt in Central Thailand are described. This area was previously thought to be deformed by the Indosinian (Triassic) orogeny. The new data show that the main orogenic event in Thailand can be dated: Post Lower Permian — Pre Uppermost Permian. Evidence is given that Paleotethys closed on Thai territory during this orogenic event. The known Upper Triassic deformations in Northern Thailand are supposed to be strictly intracontinental and therefore of minor importance.

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Zusammenfassung Die Grundzüge der geosynklinalen und orogenen Entwicklung des Faltengürtels von Petchabun werden beschrieben. Bisher wurde angenommen, daß dieses Gebiet während der Indosinischen Orogenese (Trias) deformiert wurde. Die neuen Daten belegen, daß die bedeutendste Orogenese in Thailand nach dem Unter Perm einsetzte (West-Thailand) und vor dem höchsten Perm abgeschlossen war (Petchabun). Die sog. Paleotethys wurde während dieser Orogenese hier geschlossen. Die bekannten obertriadischen Deformationen sind dagegen rein intrakontinental und somit von untergeordneter Bedeutung.

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Résumé Les traits principaux du développement géosynclinal et orogénique de la ceinture plissée du Petchabun (Thailande) sont décrits. Jusqu'à présent on pensait que cette région avait été déformée pendant l'orogenèse «Indosinienne» (Trias). Les données nouvelles indiquent que l'orogenèse la plus importante a commencée après le Permien inférieur (dans l'Ouest de la Thailande) et qu'elle s'est terminée avant le Permien supérieur (région de Petchabun). Ici, la soi-disant «Paléotéthys» s'est fermée au cours de cette orogenèse. Les déformations bien connues du Trias supérieur sont exclusivement intracontinentales et n'ont ainsi qu'une signification subordonnée.

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Petchabun. , (). , ( ) (Petchabun). . . .

     

Coseismic and post-seismic signatures of the Sumatra 2004 December and 2005 March earthquakes in GRACE satellite gravity

The GRACE satellite mission has been measuring the Earth's gravity field and its temporal variations since 2002 April. Although these variations are mainly due to mass transfer within the geofluid envelops, they also result from mass displacements associated with phenomena including glacial isostatic adjustment and earthquakes. However, these last contributions are difficult to isolate because of the presence of noise and of geofluid signals, and because of GRACE's coarse spatial resolution (>400 km half-wavelength). In this paper, we show that a wavelet analysis on the sphere helps to retrieve earthquake signatures from GRACE geoid products. Using a wavelet analysis of GRACE geoids products, we show that the geoid variations caused by the 2004 December ( M _w= 9.2) and 2005 March ( M _w= 8.7) Sumatra earthquakes can be detected. At GRACE resolution, the 2004 December earthquake produced a strong coseismic decrease of the gravity field in the Andaman Sea, followed by relaxation in the area affected by both the Andaman 2004 and the Nias 2005 earthquakes. We find two characteristic timescales for the relaxation, with a fast variation occurring in the vicinity of the Central Andaman ridge. We discuss our coseismic observations in terms of density changes of crustal and upper-mantle rocks, and of the vertical displacements in the Andaman Sea. We interpret the post-seismic signal in terms of the viscoelastic response of the Earth's mantle. The transient component of the relaxation may indicate the presence of hot, viscous material beneath the active Central Andaman Basin.     

Field‐based and spectral indicators for soil erosion mapping in semi‐arid mediterranean environments (Coastal Cordillera of central Chile)

The Coastal Cordillera of central Chile is naturally sensitive to soil erosion due to moderate to steep slopes, intense winter rains when the vegetation cover is scarce, and deeply weathered granitic rocks. In 1965, 60 per cent of its surface was moderately to very severely eroded. Today this process is still largely active, but no data are currently available to evaluate the real extent, distribution and severity of soil degradation on a regional scale. This information is vital to support efficient soil conservation plans. A multi‐scale approach was implemented to produce regional land degradation maps based on remote sensing technologies. Fieldwork has shown that the surface colour or ‘redness’ and the density of coarse fragments are pertinent erosion indicators to describe a typical sequence of soil degradation in the context of mediterranean soil developed on granitic materials and micaschists. Field radiometric experiments concluded that both factors influence the reflectance of natural surfaces and can be modelled using radiometric indices accessible from most satellites operating in the optical domain, i.e. redness index and brightness index. Finally the radiometric indices were successfully applied to SPOT images to produce land degradation maps. Only broad classes of erosion status were discriminated and the detection of the degradation processes was only possible when most of the fertile layer had already been removed. This technology provides decision‐making information required to develop regional soil conservation plans and to prioritize actions between catchment areas, especially in vast inter‐tropical regions where spatialized data are not always readily available. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Petrochemical Investigation of the Antique Ophiolite (Philippines): Implications on Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide and Podiform Chromitite Deposits

Abstract: The Antique ophiolite, located in Panay island (west‐central Philippines), corresponds to several tectonic slices within the suture zone between the Philippine Mobile Belt (PMB) and the North Palawan Block (NPB). It includes dismembered fragments of a basaltic sequence, dominantly pillow‐lavas with minor sheet flows, rare exposures of sheeted dikes, isotropic gabbros, subordinate layered mafic and ultramafic rock sequences and serpentinites. Most of the ophiolite units commonly occur as clasts and blocks within the serpentinites, which intrude the whole ophiolitic body, as well as, the basal conglomerate of the overlying Middle Miocene sedimentary formation. The volcanic rock sequence is characterized by chemical compositions ranging from transitional (T)‐MORB, normal (N)‐MORB and to chemistry intermediate between those of MORB and island arc basalt (IAB). The residual upper mantle sequence is harzburgitic and generally more depleted than the upper mantle underlying modern mid‐oceanic ridges. Calculations using whole‐rock and mineral compositions show that they can represent the residue of a fertile mantle source, which have undergone degrees of partial melting ranging from 9‐22.5 %. Some of the mantle samples display chondrite‐nor‐malized REE and extended multi‐element patterns suggesting enrichments in LREE, Rb, Sr and Zr, which are comparable to those found in fore‐arc peridotites from the Izu‐Bonin‐Mariana (IBM) arc system. The Antique ultramafic rocks also record relatively oxidizing mantle conditions (Δlog f_O2 (FMQ)=0.9‐3.5). As a whole, the ophiolite probably represents an agglomeration of oceanic ridge and fore‐arc crust fragments, which were juxtaposed during the Miocene collision of the PMB and the NPB. The intrusion of the serpentinites might be either coeval or subsequent to the accretion of the oceanic crust onto the fore‐arc. Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits occur either in or near the contact between the pillow basalts and the overlying sediments or interbedded with the sediments. The morphology of the deposits, type of metals, ore texture and the nature of the host rocks suggest that the formation of the VMS bodies was similar to the accumulation of metals around and in the subsurface of hydrothermal vents observed in modern mid‐oceanic ridge and back‐arc basin rift settings. The podiform chromitites occur as pods and subordinate layers within totally serpentinized dunite in the residual upper mantle sequence. No large coherent chromitite deposit was found since the host dunitic rocks often occur as blocks within the serpentinites. It is difficult to evaluate the original geodynamic setting of the mineralized bodies since the chemistry of the host rocks were considerably modified by alteration during their tectonic emplacement. A preliminary conclusion for Antique is that the VMS is apparently associated with a primitive tholeiitic intermediate MORB‐IAB volcanic suite, the chemistry of which is close to the calculated composition of the liquid that coexisted with the podiform chromitites.     

ENSO cycle in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model and its negative feedback mechanism

Summary A coupled ocean-atmosphere anomaly model has been developed for simulating ENSO cycle and its mechanism-study in this paper. After a long model run, the coupled model is successful in demonstrating ENSO-like irregular interannual variability and corresponding horizontal spatial structures. Based on the simulated results, the dynamics and the thermodynamics of the model ENSO cycle have been investigated, and in particular the negative feedback mechanisms that act to oppose instability of air-sea interaction, inducing termination of warm and cold events, have been examined. A detailed analysis of the oceanic wave dynamical properties and heat budget of the SST changes in a representative cycle suggest that the negative feedback mechanism to check the unstable growth of a warm event obviously differs from that of a cold event. The mechanism that induces decay and termination of a cold event is closely related to the negative, delayed feedback effect produced by the oceanic dynamical wave reflection at the western boundary. However, independent of the wave reflection effect, the negative feedback mechanism by which the coupled system returns from a warm event is associated with a slowly eastward-propagating coupling mode. Accompanied with the strong unstable development of the equatorial positive SST anomaly, the anomalous upwelling of cold water generated off the equator and the nonlinear anomalous meridional advection generated in the equator west of instability area jointly restrain the instability and finally plunge the system from a mature warm phase into a weak cold phase. A comparison between the results from the present model and the previous works is also discussed in this paper.With 16 Figures