Creating collaboration for contentious projects on managed aquifer recharge: two cases from Finland

In Finland, community water supply has increasingly relied on natural groundwater and artificially recharged groundwater as the raw water source. Several managed aquifer recharge (MAR) projects have been co-created with involved parties and have proceeded well, while some cases have raised considerable resistance among the stakeholders. It seems that success or failure in MAR cooperation is related to management cultures and the ways in which various interests are taken into account, from the very beginning and throughout the process. Empirically, this paper builds on comparison between two conflictual case studies in Finland: one in the Tampere region and the other in the Turku region. The study analyses the major constraints of these projects through the lens of collaborative rationality, also drawing upon discourse analysis and negotiation theory. The material is gathered through thematic interviews of stakeholders, newspaper articles and a stakeholder workshop. The results indicate that conventional management approaches, drawing from expert-based instrumental rationality, were insufficient in both cases. The collaborative rationality framework suggests that legitimacy for the groundwater projects should be gained through joint knowledge production and inclusive multiparty interaction for creating options for collaboration. Both cases lacked the tools and know-how for authentic dialogue and collaboration. The emerging paradigm emphasizes more collaborative approaches for natural resources management and urban planning. While MAR projects operate inside these areas and are highly complex in nature, it is essential to embrace the emerging paradigm in order to promote MAR systems along with their huge potential.

     

Energetic particle experiment ERNE

The Energetic and Relativistic Nuclei and Electron (ERNE) experiment will investigate the solar atmosphere and the heliosphere by detecting particles produced in various kinds of energy release processes. ERNE is at the upper end in energy among the SOHO particle instruments. The instrument will measure the energy spectra of elements in the range Z=1–30. The energy coverage varies dependent on the particle species from a few MeV/n up to a few hundred MeV/n and electrons from 2 to 50 MeV. At high energies, ERNE records also the direction of the incident particles for accurate measurements of the pitch angle distribution of the ambient flux within the viewing cone. Especially the isotope identification capability has been one of the instrument design goals, thus providing new data regarding various fundamental questions in solar physics.     

Interplanetary propagation of relativistic solar protons

Particle fluxes and pitch angle distributions of relativistic solar protons at Earth's orbit have been determined by Monte Carlo calculations. The analysis covers two hours after the release of the particles from the Sun and total of 8 × 10⁶ particle trajectories were simulated. The pitch angle scattering was assumed to be isotropic and the scattering mean free path was varied from 0.1 to 4 AU.The intensity-time profiles after a delta-like injection from the Sun show that the interplanetary propagation is clearly non-diffusive at scattering mean-free paths above 0.5 AU. All pitch angle distributions have a steady minimum at 90 °, and they become similar about 20 min after the arrival of first particles.As an application, the solar injection profile and the interplanetary scattering mean-free path of particles that gave rise to the GLE on 7 May, 1978 were determined. In contrast to the values of 3–5 AU published by other authors, the average scattering mean-free path was found to be about 1 AU.     

Outokumpu revisited: New mineral deposit model for the mantle peridotite-associated Cu–Co–Zn–Ni–Ag–Au sulphide deposits

The metaturbidites of the Palaeoproterozoic Jormua–Outokumpu thrust belt in eastern Finland enclose m- to km-scale ultramafic massifs that are distributed over an area of more than 5000 km². These bodies, which almost entirely consist of highly depleted mantle peridotites (now metaserpentinites and metaperidotites), are intimately associated with massive to semimassive, polymetallic Cu–Co–Zn–Ni–Ag–Au sulphide deposits that sustained mining in the region between 1913 and 1988. Currently, one deposit (Kylylahti) is proceeding into a definitive feasibility study emphasising the renewed economic interest for Outokumpu-type deposits.The origin of these Outokumpu-type Cu–Co–Zn–Ni–Ag–Au deposits is now re-interpreted to be polygenetic. First, their formation requires deposition of a Cu-rich proto-ore within peridotitic sea floor at  1950 Ma. Close modern analogues to the proto-ore setting include, for example, the Logatchev and Rainbow fields at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where venting of high-T–low-pH hydrothermal fluid resulted in accumulations of Cu–Zn–Co–Ag–Au sulphides on serpentinised ultramafic seafloor. Second, the Ni-rich composition of Outokumpu sulphide ores calls for a separate source for nickel: Some 40 Ma after the deposition of the Cu-rich proto-ore – concomitant with the obduction of the ultramafic massifs – disseminated Ni sulphides formed through chemical interaction between obducting peridotite massifs and adjacent black schists. This process was related to listwaenite–birbirite type carbonate–silica alteration at margins of the ultramafic massifs. Due to this alteration, silicate nickel was released from the primary Fe–Mg silicates and redeposited as Ni sulphides in the alteration fringes of the massifs.We propose that syntectonic mixing of these two “end-member” sulphides, i.e., the primary Cu-rich proto-ore and the secondary Ni-sulphide disseminations, resulted in the uncommon metal combination of the Outokumpu-type sulphides. Late tectonic solid-state re-mobilisation, related to the duplexing of the ore by isoclinal folding, upgraded the sulphides into economic deposits.     

Origin of layered continental mantle (Karelian craton, Finland): Geochemical and Re–Os isotope constraints

Studies of mantle xenolith and xenocryst studies have indicated that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) at the Karelian Craton margin (Fennoscandian Shield) is stratified into at least three distinct layers cited A, B, and C. The origin and age of this layering has, however, remained unconstrained. In order to address this question, we have determined Re–Os isotope composition and a comprehensive set of major and trace elements, from xenoliths representing all these three layers. These are the first Re–Os data from the SCLM of the vast East European Craton.

Xenoliths derived from the middle layer B (at  110–180 km depth), which is the main source of harzburgitic garnets and peridotitic diamonds in these kimberlites, are characterised by unradiogenic Os isotopic composition. ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os shows a good correlation with indices of partial melting implying an age of  3.3. Ga for melt extraction. This age corresponds with the oldest formation ages of the overlying crust, suggesting that layer B represents the unmodified SCLM stabilised during the Paleoarchean. Underlying layer C (at 180–250 km depths) is the main source of Ti-rich pyropes of megacrystic composition but is lacking harzburgitic pyropes. The osmium isotopic composition of layer C xenoliths is more radiogenic compared to layer B, yielding only Proterozoic T_RD ages. Layer C is interpreted to represent a melt metasomatised equivalent to layer B. This metasomatism most likely occurred at ca. 2.0 Ga when the present craton margin formed following continental break-up. Shallow layer A (at  60–110 km depth) has knife-sharp lower contact against layer B indicative of shear zone and episodic construction of SCLM. Layer A peridotites have “ultradepleted” arc mantle-type compositions, and have been metasomatised by radiogenic ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os, presumably from slab-derived fluids. Since layer A is absent in the core of the craton, its origin can be related to Proterozoic processes at the craton margin. We interpret it to represent the lithosphere of a Proterozoic arc complex (subduction wedge mantle) that became underthrusted beneath the craton margin crust during continental collision  1.9 Ga ago.     

Layered mantle at the Karelian Craton margin: P–T of mantle xenocrysts and xenoliths from the Kaavi–Kuopio kimberlites, Finland

Peridotitic clinopyroxene (cpx) and pyrope garnet xenocrysts from four kimberlite pipes in the Kaavi–Kuopio area of Eastern Finland have been studied using major and trace element geochemistry to obtain information on the vertical compositional variability of the underlying mantle. The xenocryst data, when combined with the petrological constraints provided by peridotite xenoliths, yield a relatively complete section through the lithospheric mantle. Single-grain cpx thermobarometry fits with a 36-mW/m² geotherm calculated using heat flow constraints and xenolith modes and geophysical properties. Ni thermometry on pyrope xenocrysts gives 700–1350 °C and, based on the cpx xenocryst/xenolith geotherm, indicates a wide sampling interval, ca. 80–230 km. Plotting pyrope major and trace element compositions as a function of temperature shows there are three distinct layers in the local lithospheric mantle:

(1) A low-temperature (<850 °C) harzburgite layer distinguished by Ca-rich but Ti-, Y- and Zr-depleted pyropes. The xenoliths originating from this layer are all fine-grained garnet-spinel harzburgites with secondary cpx.

(2) A variably depleted lherzolitic, harzburgitic and wehrlitic horizon from 950 to 1150 °C or 130 to 180 km.

(3) A deep layer from 180 to 240 km composed largely of fertile material.

The peridotitic diamond window at Kaavi–Kuopio stretches from the top of the diamond stability field at 140 km to the base of the harzburgite-bearing mantle at about 180 km, implying a roughly 40-km-wide prospective zone.     

Erratum to: “Mantle depth facies of high-pressure pyroxene in the Kola region”

Doklady Earth Sciences -     

Clay mineral diagenesis and quartz cementation in mudstones: The effects of smectite to illite reaction on rock properties

The Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary sequence of the Vøring and Møre Basins from the Norwegian Sea has been examined with respect to mineralogy based on 319 cutting samples from five wells. A clear relationship between mineralogy and well log data is demonstrated. A significant change with respect to velocity, porosity and density occurs within the depth interval corresponding to 80–90 °C. At shallow depths/temperatures (<2.0 km/70 °C), compaction is mainly mechanical and the physical properties are similar to what has been measured by experimental compaction of mudstones. At greater depths, however, the log derived velocities and densities are higher than those produced by experimental compaction indicating significant chemical compaction. XRD analyses show a progressive alteration of smectite to illite (S–I) within this depth/temperature interval which results in the release of significant amounts of silica into solution. Detrital silt and fine-grained quartz showed no secondary quartz overgrowths. These grains are isolated within a clay matrix and surrounded by clay minerals, thus limiting the available surface area and pore space for quartz overgrowths. Chemical analyses (XRF) indicate that silica is conserved within this depth interval, and the amount released from S–I alteration was locally precipitated. Field emission gun-scanning electron microscopy (FEG-SEM) and cathode luminescence (CL) identified authigenic micro-crystalline quartz cement within the clay matrix at temperatures above ∼85 °C. This is accompanied by an increase in velocity and density indicating that the S–I reaction and the precipitation of authigenic quartz caused a significant change in the rock stiffness.     

Magma-country rock interaction and the genesis of Ni-Cu deposits in the Vammala Nickel Belt,SW Finland

Summary Ultramafic cumulate bodies in the Vammala Nickel Belt, some of which host small magmatic Ni-Cu sulphide deposits, are remnants of synorogenic intrusions that were emplaced into the early Proterozoic Svecofennian arc terrane and became progressively boudinaged by continuing tectonic movements.Mineral and sulphide compositions of mineralised Svecofennian intrusions require that sedimentary sulphides (0.5 wt.% Zn; Se/S 100 x 10^–6) played an important role in ore genesis. It is proposed that when ascending magmas encountered sedimentary formations containing abundant sulphidic black schists, they assimilated external sulphur, which led to the formation of an immiscible sulphide phase in the magma. The high Zn contents of interstitial sulphides (280-450 ppm) and liquidus chrome spinels (0.7–1.0 wt.%) indicate that the parental magma contained much more Zn than conventional assimilation processes would allow. Probably, S and Zn were selectively transferred by C-O-H-S fluids from the black schists into the cooling magma. Desulphidisation (involving conversion of pyrite to pyrrhotite) in the country rocks was driven by thermal energy provided by both the intrusions themselves and the concomitant regional metamorphism. Magma-country rock interaction during ore genesis is also indicated by the presence of minor phases such as graphite, ZnS, PbS, MoS₂, an unknown Re-Mo-Cu-Os sulphide and numerous tellurides among the Fe-Ni-Cu sulphides.During the peak of regional metamorphism small felsic dykes intruded the cumulate bodies and remobilised the interstitial Fe-Ni-Cu sulphides into thin massive ore veins. Compared to interstitial ore, vein sulphides are depleted in Cu, Se, and Zn. Some Fe-Ni-Cu sulphides also migrated, probably due to regional strain effects, into the country rocks and mixed with sedimentary sulphides.Those magmas that formed unmineralised intrusions had already intruded sulphidic black schists and assimilated external S and Zn prior to final emplacement, and had thus become depleted in chalcophile elements and Zn by the segregation of sulphides and chrome spinel, respectively.

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Zusammenfassung Die Genese der Ni-Cu Lagerstätte Vammala, SW Finnland Die ultramafischen Kumulatkorper im Vammala Nickel Belt sind Reste einer synorogenen Intrusion, die innerhalb des friihproterozoischen svecofennischen Inselbogens Platz genommen hat and wahrend fortschreitender Tektonik boudiniert worden ist. Einige dieser Körper führen kleine magmatische Ni-Cu-Sulfid-Vererzungen.Die Mineralzusammensetzung dieser mineralisierten svecofennischen Intrusionen zeigen, daß sedimentare Sulfide (0.5 Gew.% Zn; Se/S 100 x 10 - 6) eine wichtige Rolle bei der Erzgenese gespielt haben. Es wird vermutet, daß die Magmen durch sedimentare Formationen, reich an sulfidischen Schwarzschiefern, aufgestiegen sind, und dabei externen Schwefel assimiliert haben. Dies fiihrte zur Entmischung einer SulfidPhase im Magma. Die hohen Zn-Gehalte der disseminierten Sulfide (280-450 ppm) und der Gehalt an liquidus Chromspinell (0.7–1.0 Gew.%) deuten an, daß der Zn-Gehalt im Stammagma weit höher gewesen sein muß, als es konventionelle Prozesse der Assimilation zulassen. Möglichweise wurden S and Zn selektiv durch C-O-H-S Fluide aus den Schwarzschiefern in das abkühlende Magma eingebracht. Die Desulfidisierung (mit Umwandlung von Pyrit zu Pyrrhotin) im Nebengestein wurde durch thermische Energie angetrieben, die sowohl von den Intrusionen selbst wie auch von der gleichzeitigen Regionalmetamorphose stammt. Die Magma-Nebengestein-Interaktion wahrend der Erzgenese ist auch durch untergeordnete Mineralphasen wie Graphit, ZnS, PbS, MoS₂, einem unbekannten Re-Mo-Cu-Os Sulfid and einigen Telluriden, zusammen mit den Fe-Ni-Cu Sulfiden, dokumentiertWährend des Höhepunktes der Regionalmetamorphose intrudierten dünne felsische Gänge die Kumulatkorper, wobei es zu einer Remobilisierung der disseminierten Fe-Ni Sulfide in dunne, massive Erzgänge gekommen ist. Verglichen mit den disseminier ten Erzen sind die Gang-Sulfide an Cu, Se and Zn verarmt. Einige Fe-Ni-Cu Sulfide migrierten, wahrscheinlich aufgrund von regionalen Strain-Effekten, in die Nebengesteine und vermischten rich mit den sedimentären Sulfiden.Jene Magmen, die nicht-mineralisierte Intrusionen gebildet haben, hatten schon vor der eigentlichen Platznahme die Schwarzschiefer intrudiert and externen S and Zn assimiliert; sic verloren durch die Segregation von Sulfiden and Chromspinell chalkophile Elemente and Zn.