Estimating runoff from a glacierized catchment using natural tracers in the semi‐arid Andes cordillera

This paper presents a methodology for hydrograph separation in mountain watersheds, which aims at identifying flow sources among ungauged headwater sub‐catchments through a combination of observed streamflow and data on natural tracers including isotope and dissolved solids. Daily summer and bi‐daily spring season water samples obtained at the outlet of the Juncal River Basin in the Andes of Central Chile were analysed for all major ions as well as stable water isotopes, δ¹⁸O and δD. Additionally, various samples from rain, snow, surface streams and exfiltrating subsurface water (springs) were sampled throughout the catchment. A principal component analysis was performed in order to address cross‐correlation in the tracer dataset, reduce the dimensionality of the problem and uncover patterns of variability. Potential sources were identified in a two‐component U‐space that explains 94% of the observed tracer variability at the catchment outlet. Hydrograph separation was performed through an Informative‐Bayesian model. Our results indicate that the Juncal Norte Glacier headwater sub‐catchment contributed at least 50% of summer flows at the Juncal River Basin outlet during the 2011–2012 water year (a hydrologically dry period in the Region), even though it accounts for only 27% of the basin area. Our study confirms the value of combining solute and isotope information for estimating source contributions in complex hydrologic systems, and provides insights regarding experimental design in high‐elevation semi‐arid catchments. The findings of this study can be useful for evaluating modelling studies of the hydrological consequences of the rapid decrease in glacier cover observed in this region, by providing insights into the origin of river water in basins with little hydrometeorological information. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tidal impact on the division of river discharge over distributary channels in the Mahakam Delta

Bifurcations in tidally influenced deltas distribute river discharge over downstream channels, asserting a strong control over terrestrial runoff to the coastal ocean. Whereas the mechanics of river bifurcations is well-understood, junctions in tidal channels have received comparatively little attention in the literature. This paper aims to quantify the tidal impact on subtidal discharge distribution at the bifurcations in the Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The Mahakam Delta is a regular fan-shaped delta, composed of a quasi-symmetric network of rectilinear distributaries and sinuous tidal channels. A depth-averaged version of the unstructured-mesh, finite-element model second-generation Louvain-la-Neuve Ice-ocean Model has been used to simulate the hydrodynamics driven by river discharge and tides in the delta channel network. The model was forced with tides at open sea boundaries and with measured and modeled river discharge at upstream locations. Calibration was performed with water level time series and flow measurements, both spanning a simulation period. Validation was performed by comparing the model results with discharge measurements at the two principal bifurcations in the delta. Results indicate that within 10 to 15 km from the delta apex, the tides alter the river discharge division by about 10% in all bifurcations. The tidal impact increases seaward, with a maximum value of the order of 30%. In general, the effect of tides is to hamper the discharge division that would occur in the case without tides.     

New precipitation and temperature grids for northern Patagonia: Advances in relation to global climate grids

Climate data of mean monthly temperature and total monthly precipitation compiled from different sources in northern Patagonia were interpolated to 20-km resolution grids over the period 1997–2010. This northern Patagonian climate grid (NPCG) improves upon previous gridded products in terms of its spatial resolution and number of contributing stations, since it incorporates 218 and 114 precipitation and temperature records, respectively. A geostatistical method using surface elevation from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) as the ancillary variable was used to interpolate station data into even spaced points. The maps provided by NPCG are consistent with the broad spatial and temporal patterns of the northern Patagonian climate, showing a comprehensive representation of the latitudinal and altitudinal gradients in temperature and precipitation, as well as their related patterns of seasonality and continentality. We compared the performance of NPCG and various other datasets available to the climate community for northern Patagonia. The grids used for the comparison included those of the Global Precipitation Climatology Project, ERAInterim, Climate Research Unit (University of East Anglia), and University of Delaware. Based on three statistics that quantitatively assess the spatial coherence of gridded data against available observations (bias, MAE, and RMSE), NPCG outperforms other global grids. NPCG represents a useful tool for understanding climate variability in northern Patagonia and a valuable input for regional models of hydrological and ecological processes. Its resolution is optimal for validating data from the general circulation models and working with raster data derived from remote sensing, such as vegetation indices.     

Ex post analysis of engineered tsunami mitigation measures in the town of Dichato,Chile

Natural Hazards - Due to Chile’s notorious and frequent seismic activity, earthquake- and tsunami-related studies have become a priority in the interest of developing effective...     

Crustal structure in the Falcón Basin area, northwestern Venezuela, from seismic and gravimetric evidence

The Falcón Basin in northwestern Venezuela has a complex geological history driven by the interactions between the South American and Caribbean plates. Igneous intrusive bodies that outcrop along the axis of the basin have been associated with crustal thinning, and gravity modeling has shown evidence for a significantly thinned crust beneath the basin. In this study, crustal scale seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection data derived from onshore/offshore active seismic experiments are interpreted and forward-modeled to generate a P-wave velocity model for a 450 km long profile. The final model shows thinning of the crust beneath the Falcón Basin where depth to Moho decreases to 27 km from a value of 40 km about 100 km to the south. A deeper reflected phase on the offshore section is interpreted to be derived from the downgoing Caribbean slab. Velocity values were converted to density and the resulting gravimetric response was shown to be consistent with the regional gravity anomaly. The crustal thinning proposed here supports a rift origin for the Falcón Basin.     

Stratotype for the Mérida Glaciation at Pueblo Llano in the northern Venezuelan Andes

The Mérida Glaciation (cf. Wisconsinan, Weichselian) as proposed by Schubert (1974b) culminated at about 18 ka during the last glacial maximum (LGM) and ended at about 13 ka as indicated by ¹⁴C dating and correlation with the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia. Moraines of an early stade of Mérida Glaciation reached to 2800 m a.s.l. and were largely overrun or eradicated by the maximum Wisconsinan advance (LGM); where they outcrop, the older moraines are characterized by eroded, weathered glacial diamictons and outwash fans.At Pueblo Llano in the central Mérida Andes (Cordillera de Trujillo), older to younger beds of contorted glacitectonized diamict, overlying beds of bouldery till and indurated outwash, all belong to the early Mérida stade. Overlying the early Mérida stade, deposits of rhythmically bedded glaciolacustrine sediments are in turn overlain with contorted sand and silt beds capped with outwash. Above the outwash terrace a loop moraine of LGM age completely encircles the margins of the basin. A stream cut exposed by catastrophic (tectonic or surge?) release of meltwater displays a lithostratigraphic succession that is bereft of organic material for radiocarbon dating. Five optically-stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates place the maximum age of the lowest till at 81 ka.Particle size distributions allow clear distinctions between major lithic units. Heavy mineral analysis of the middle and lower coarse units in the section provide information on sediment sourcing and on major lithostratigraphic divisions. Trace element concentrations provide information on the relative homogeneity of the deposits. The HREE (heavy rare earth element) concentrations allow discrimination of the lower till from the rest of the section; the LREE (light rare earth element) concentrations highlight differences between the lower till, LGM till, and the rest of the section.     

Influence of Hematite Coating on the Activation of the Swelling Potential of Smectite-Bearing Rocks

The fraction of swelling-type clay minerals (smectites) is a first measure to estimate the swelling potential of natural rocks. This swelling potential is only activated if water can be incorporated in the sheet silicates. The samples studied in this work are volcanic rocks from the Southern Andes. According to the petrographic and mineralogical studies, the rocks are characterized as vulcanite with high content of smectite. Undisturbed samples showed minor swelling behaviour in conventional swelling tests, although X-ray diffraction and differential thermal analysis revealed swelling clay contents of more than 70 % in some samples. Powder swelling tests were performed on ground and recompacted rock samples. The results of these tests show a better agreement with those expected according to the mineralogical composition of the samples. The reason for the non-activation of the swelling potential in undisturbed samples was suspected to be the influence of the iron-oxide/hydroxide content, which was on average around 11 %. Scanning electron microscope images showed that the edge terminations of the clay particles are coated with hematite. The hydrophobic properties of hematite impede the access of water between the interlayers of the clay minerals and, in addition, hematite cementation prevents the expansion. In a further series of swelling tests water was replaced by a reducing solution (0.1 molar hydroxylammonium chloride) which removes the Fe-oxide coating. It can be shown that thus the swelling potential of the clay minerals in such undisturbed rocks can be activated.