Stochastic modeling of high-stability ground clocks in GPS analysis

In current global positioning system (GPS) applications, receiver clocks are typically estimated epoch-wise in the data analyses even for clocks with high performance like Hydrogen-masers (H-maser). Applying an appropriate clock model for high-stability receiver clocks should, in view of the strong correlation between the station height and the clock parameters, significantly improve the positioning results. Recent experiments have shown that modeling the deterministic behavior of high-quality receiver clocks can improve the kinematic precise point positioning considerably. In this paper, well-behaving ground clocks are studied in detail applying constraints between subsequent and near-subsequent clock parameters. The influence of different weights for these relative clock constraints on the positioning quality, especially on the height, is investigated. For excellent clocks, an improvement of up to a factor of 3 can be obtained for the repeatability of the kinematic height estimates. This may be essential to detect small but sudden changes in the vertical component (e.g., caused by earthquakes). Troposphere zenith path delays (ZPD) are also heavily correlated with the receiver clock estimates and station heights. All these parameters are usually estimated simultaneously. We show that the use of relative clock constraints allows for a higher time resolution of the ZPD estimates (smaller than 2 h) without compromising the quality of the kinematic height estimates.     

Geomorphic coupling between hillslopes and channels in the Swiss Alps

The coupling relationships between hillslope and channel network are fundamental for the understanding of mountainous landscapes' evolution. Here, we applied dendrogeomorphic methods to identify the hillslope–channel relationship and the sediment transfer dynamics within an alpine catchment, at the highest possible resolution. The Schimbrig catchment is located in the central Swiss Alps and can be divided into two distinct geomorphic sectors. To the east, the Schimbrig earth flow is the largest sediment source of the basin, while to the west, the Rossloch channel network is affected by numerous shallow landslides responsible for the supply of sediment from hillslopes to channels. To understand the connectivity between hillslopes and channels and between sources and sink, trees were sampled along the main Rossloch stream, on the Schimbrig earth flow and on the Rossloch depositional area. Geomorphic observations and dendrogeomophic results indicate different mechanisms of sediment production, transfer and deposition between upper and lower segments of the channel network. In the source areas (upper part of the Rossloch channel system), sediment is delivered to the channel network through slow movements of the ground, typical of earth flow, shallow landslides and soil creep. Contrariwise, in the depositional area (lower part of the channel network), the mechanisms of sediment transfer are mainly due to torrential activity, floods and debris flows. Tree analysis allowed the reconstruction of periods of high activity during the last century for the entire catchment. The collected dataset presents a very high temporal resolution but we encountered some limitations in establishing the source‐to‐sink connectivity at the catchment‐wide scale. Despite these uncertainties, for decennial timescales the results suggest a direct coupling between hillslopes and neighbouring channels in the Rossloch channel network, and a de‐coupling between sediment sources and sink farther downstream, with connections possible only during extraordinary events. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Solar Stereoscopy with STEREO/EUVI A and B Spacecraft from Small (6°) to Large (170°) Spacecraft Separation Angles

We performed for the first time stereoscopic triangulation of coronal loops in active regions over the entire range of spacecraft separation angles (?? _sep??6^°,43^°,89^°,127^°,and 170^°). The accuracy of stereoscopic correlation depends mostly on the viewing angle with respect to the solar surface for each spacecraft, which affects the stereoscopic correspondence identification of loops in image pairs. From a simple theoretical model we predict an optimum range of ?? _sep??22^°??C?125^°, which is also experimentally confirmed. The best accuracy is generally obtained when an active region passes the central meridian (viewed from Earth), which yields a symmetric view for both STEREO spacecraft and causes minimum horizontal foreshortening. For the extended angular range of ?? _sep??6^°??C?127^° we find a mean 3D misalignment angle of ?? _PF??21^°??C?39^° of stereoscopically triangulated loops with magnetic potential-field models, and ?? _FFF??15^°??C?21^° for a force-free field model, which is partly caused by stereoscopic uncertainties ?? _SE??9^°. We predict optimum conditions for solar stereoscopy during the time intervals of 2012??C?2014, 2016??C?2017, and 2021??C?2023.     

Geomorphic and stream flow influences on large wood dynamics and displacement lengths in high gradient mountain streams (Chile)

Understanding large wood (LW; ≥1 m long and ≥10 cm in diameter) dynamics in rivers is critical for many disciplines including those assessing flood hazard and risk. However, our understanding of wood entrainment and deposition is still limited, mainly because of the lack of long‐term monitoring of wood‐related processes. The dataset presented here was obtained from more than 8 years of monitoring of 1,264 tagged wood pieces placed in 4 low‐order streams of the Chilean mountain ranges and was used to further our understanding of key factors controlling LW dynamics. We show that LW displacement lengths were longer during periods when peak‐flow water depths (H_max) exceeded the bankfull stage (H_Bk) than in periods with H_max ≤ H_Bk and that these differences were significantly higher for smaller wood pieces. LW length and length relative to channel dimensions were the main factors governing LW entrainment; LW displacement lengths were inversely related to the ratio of piece length to H_15% (i.e., the level above which the flow remains for 15% of the time) and to the ratio of H_15% to bankfull width. Unrooted logs and LW pieces located at the bankfull stage travelled significantly longer distances than logs with attached rootwads and those located in other positions within the bankfull channel. A few large logjams were broken during the period of observation, and in all occasions, LW from these broken logjams did not travel over longer distances than other pieces of LW moved in the same periods and in the same stream segments. Most importantly, our work reveals that LW dynamics tend to be concentrated within a few reaches in each stream and that reaches exhibiting high wood dynamics (extensive entrainment, deposition, or repositioning of LW) are significantly wider and less steep than less dynamic reaches.     

Dendrogeomorphic reconstruction of past debris‐flow activity using injured broad‐leaved trees

Tree‐ring records from conifers have been regularly used over the last few decades to date debris‐flow events. The reconstruction of past debris‐flow activity was, in contrast, only very rarely based on growth anomalies in broad‐leaved trees. Consequently, this study aimed at dating the occurrence of former debris flows from growth series of broad‐leaved trees and at determining their suitability for dendrogeomorphic research. Results were obtained from gray alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench), silver birch and pubescent birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.), aspen (Populus tremula L.), white poplar, black poplar and gray poplar (Populus alba L., Populus nigra L. and Populus x canescens (Ait.) Sm.), goat willow (Salix caprea L.) and black elder (Sambucus nigra L.) injured by debris‐flow activity at Illgraben (Valais, Swiss Alps). Tree‐ring analysis of 104 increment cores, 118 wedges and 93 cross‐sections from 154 injured broad‐leaved trees allowed the reconstruction of 14 debris‐flow events between AD 1965 and 2007. These events were compared with archival records on debris‐flow activity at Illgraben. It appears that debris flows are very common at Illgraben, but only very rarely left the channel over the period AD 1965–2007. Furthermore, analysis of the spatial distribution of disturbed trees contributed to the identification of six patterns of debris‐flow routing and led to the determination of preferential breakout locations of events. The results of this study demonstrate the high potential of broad‐leaved trees for dendrogeomorphic research and for the assessment of the travel distance and lateral spread of debris‐flow surges. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Arctic rockwall retreat rates estimated using laboratory‐calibrated ERT measurements of talus cones in Longyeardalen,Svalbard

Holocene rockwall retreat rates quantify integral values of rock slope erosion and talus cone evolution. Here we investigate Holocene rockwall retreat of exposed arctic sandstone cliffs in Longyeardalen, central Svalbard and apply laboratory‐calibrated electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to determine talus sediment thickness. Temperature–resistivity functions of two sandstone samples are measured in the laboratory and compared with borehole temperatures from the talus slope. The resistivity of the higher and lower‐porosity sandstone at relevant borehole permafrost temperatures defines a threshold range that accounts for the lithological variability of the dominant bedrock and debris material. This helps to estimate the depth of the transition from higher resistivities of ice‐rich debris to lower resistivities of frozen bedrock in the six ERT transects. The depth of the debris–bedrock transition in ERT profiles is confirmed by a pronounced apparent resistivity gradient in the raw data plotted versus depth of investigation. High‐resolution LiDAR‐scanning and ERT subsurface information were collated in a GIS to interpolate the bedrock surface and to calculate the sediment volume of the talus cones. The resulting volumes were referenced to source areas to calculate rockwall retreat rates. The rock mass strength was estimated for the source areas. The integral rockwall retreat rates range from 0.33 to 1.96 mm yr^–1, and are among the highest rockwall retreat rates measured in arctic environments, presumably modulated by harsh environmental forcing on a porous sandstone rock cliff with a comparatively low rock mass strength. Here, we show the potential of laboratory‐calibrated ERT to provide accurate estimates of rockwall retreat rates even in ice‐rich permafrost talus slopes. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Solar flare physics enlivened by TRACE and RHESSI

The Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE) gave us the highest EUV spatial resolution and the Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectrometric Imager (RHESSI) gave us the highest hard X-ray and gammaray spectral resolution to study solar flares. We review a number of recent highlights obtained from both missions that either enhance or challenge our physical understanding of solar flares, such as:

1. Multi-thermal Diagnostic of 6.7 and 8.0 keV Fe and Ni lines
2. Multi-thermal Conduction Cooling Delays
3. Chromospheric Altitude of Hard X-Ray Emission
4. Evidence for Dipolar Reconnection Current Sheets
5. Footpoint Motion and Reconnection Rate
6. Evidence for Tripolar Magnetic Reconnection
7. Displaced Electron and Ion Acceleration Sources.

     

Floods at the northern foothills of the Tatra Mountains — A Polish-Swiss research project

The present paper introduces the topical area of the Polish-Swiss research project FLORIST (Flood risk on the northern foothills of the Tatra Mountains), informs on its objectives, and reports on initial results. The Tatra Mountains are the area of the highest precipitation in Poland and largely contribute to flood generation. The project is focused around four competence clusters: observation-based climatology, model-based climate change projections and impact assessment, dendrogeomorphology, and impact of large wood debris on fluvial processes. The knowledge generated in the FLORIST project is likely to have impact on understanding and interpretation of flood risk on the northern foothills of the Tatra Mountains, in the past, present, and future. It can help solving important practical problems related to flood risk reduction strategies and flood preparedness.     

A model-based study of ice and freshwater transport variability along both sides of Greenland

We investigate some aspects of the variability of the Arctic freshwater content during the 1965–2002 period using the DRAKKAR eddy admitting global ocean/sea-ice model (12 km resolution in the Arctic). A comparison with recent mooring sections shows that the model realistically represents the major advective exchanges with the Arctic basin, through Bering, Fram and Davis Straits, and the Barents Sea. This allows the separate contributions of the inflows and outflows across each section to be quantified. In the model, the Arctic freshwater content variability is explained by the sea-ice flux at Fram and the combined variations of ocean freshwater inflow (at Bering) and outflow (at Fram and Davis). At all routes, except trough Fram Strait, the freshwater transport variability is mainly accounted for by the liquid component, with small contributions from the sea-ice flux. The ocean freshwater transport variability through both Davis and Fram is controlled by the variability of the export branch (Baffin Island Current and East Greenland Current, respectively), the variability of the inflow branches playing a minor role. We examine the respective role of velocity and salinity fluctuations in the variability of the ocean freshwater transport. Fram and Davis Straits offer a striking contrast in this regard. Freshwater transport variations across Davis Strait are completely determined by the variations of the total volume flux (0.91 correlation). On the other hand, the freshwater transport through Fram Strait depends both on variations of volume transport and salinity. As a result, there is no significant correlation between the variability of freshwater flux at Fram and Davis, although the volume transports on each side of Greenland are strongly anti-correlated (−0.84). Contrary to Davis Strait, the salinity of water carried by the East Greenland Current through Fram Strait varies strongly due to the ice-ocean flux north of Greenland.