Atmospheric input of nitrogen into the North Sea: ANICE project overview

The aim of the atmospheric nitrogen inputs into the coastal ecosystem (ANICE) project is to improve transport–chemistry models that estimate nitrogen deposition to the sea. To achieve this, experimental and modelling work is being conducted which aims to improve understanding of the processes involved in the chemical transformation, transport and deposition of atmospheric nitrogen compounds. Of particular emphasis within ANICE is the influence of coastal zone processes. Both short episodes with high deposition and chronic nitrogen inputs are considered in the project. The improved transport–chemistry models will be used to assess the atmospheric inputs of nitrogen compounds into the European regional seas (the North Sea is studied as a prototype) and evaluate the impact of various emission reduction strategies on the atmospheric nitrogen loads. Assessment of the impact of atmospheric nitrogen on coastal ecosystems will be based on comparisons of phytoplankton nitrogen requirements, other external nitrogen inputs to the ANICE area of interest and the direct nitrogen fluxes provided by ANICE. Selected results from both the experimental and modelling components are presented here. The experimental results show the large spatial and temporal variability in the concentrations of gaseous nitrogen compounds, and their influences on fluxes. Model calculations show the strong variation of both concentrations and gradients of nitric acid at fetches of up to 25 km. Aerosol concentrations also show high temporal variability and experimental evidence for the reaction between nitric acid and sea salt aerosol is provided by size-segregated aerosol composition measured at both sides of the North Sea. In several occasions throughout the experimental period, air mass back trajectory analysis showed connected flow between the two sampling sites (the Weybourne Atmospheric Observatory on the North Norfolk coast of the UK and Meetpost Noordwijk, a research tower at 9 km off the Dutch coast). Results from the METRAS/SEMA mesoscale chemistry transport model system for one of these cases are presented. Measurements of aerosol and rain chemical composition, using equipment mounted on a commercial ferry, show variations in composition across the North Sea. These measurements have been compared to results obtained with the transport–chemistry model ACDEP which calculates the atmospheric inputs into the whole North Sea area. Finally, the results will be made available for the assessment of the impact of atmospheric nitrogen on coastal ecosystems.     

Implication of evaporative loss estimation methods in discharge and water temperature modelling in cool temperate climates

Evaporative flux is a key component of hydrological budgets. Water loss through evapotranspiration reduces volumes available for run‐off. The transition from liquid to water vapour on open water surfaces requires heat. Consequently, evaporation act as a cooling mechanism during summer. Both river discharge and water temperature simulations are thus influenced by the methods used to model evaporation. In this paper, the impact of evapotranspiration estimation methods on simulated discharge is assessed using a semidistributed model on two Canadian watersheds. The impact of evaporation estimation methods on water temperature simulations is also evaluated. Finally, the validity of using the same formulation to simulate both of these processes is verified. Five well‐known evapotranspiration models and five evaporation models with different wind functions were tested. Results show a large disparity (18–22% of mean annual total evapotranspiration) among the evapotranspiration methods, leading to important differences in simulated discharge (3–25% of observed discharge). Larger differences result from evaporation estimation methods with mean annual divergences of 34–48%. This translates into a difference in mean summer water temperature of 1–15%. Results also show that the choice of model parameter has less influence than the choice of evapotranspiration method in discharge simulations. However, the parameter values influence thermal simulations in the same order of magnitude as the choice of evaporation estimation method. Overall, the results of this study suggest that evapotranspiration and open water evaporation should be represented separately in a hydrological modelling framework, especially when water temperature simulations are required.     

Target-oriented imaging using extended image volumes: a low-rank factorization approach

Imaging in geological challenging environments has led to new developments, including the idea of generating reflection responses by means of interferometric redatuming at a given target datum in the subsurface, when the target datum lies beneath a complex overburden. One way to perform this redatuming is via conventional model-based wave-equation techniques. But those techniques can be computationally expensive for large-scale seismic problems since the number of wave-equation solves is equal to two times the number of sources involved during seismic data acquisition. Also conventional shot-profile techniques require lots of memory to save full subsurface extended image volumes. Therefore, we can only form subsurface image volumes in either horizontal or vertical directions. To exploit the information hidden in full subsurface extended image volumes, we now present a randomized singular value decomposition-based approach built upon the matrix probing scheme, which takes advantage of the algebraic structure of the extended imaging system. This low-rank representation enables us to overcome both the computational cost associated with the number of wave-equation solutions and memory usage due to explicit storage of full subsurface extended image volumes employed by conventional migration methods. Experimental results on complex geological models demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed methodology and allow practical reflection-based extended imaging for large-scale five-dimensional seismic data.     

Extreme precipitation in WRF during the Newcastle East Coast Low of 2007

In the context of regional downscaling, we study the representation of extreme precipitation in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, focusing on a major event that occurred on the 8^th of June 2007 along the coast of eastern Australia (abbreviated “Newy”). This was one of the strongest extra-tropical low-pressure systems off eastern Australia in the last 30 years and was one of several storms comprising a test bed for the WRF ensemble that underpins the regional climate change projections for eastern Australia (New South Wales/Australian Capital Territory Regional Climate Modelling Project, NARCliM). Newy provides an informative case study for examining precipitation extremes as simulated by WRF set up for regional downscaling. Here, simulations from the NARCliM physics ensemble of Newy available at ～10 km grid spacing are used. Extremes and spatio-temporal characteristics are examined using land-based daily and hourly precipitation totals, with a particular focus on hourly accumulations. Of the different physics schemes assessed, the cumulus and the boundary layer schemes cause the largest differences. Although the Betts-Miller-Janjic cumulus scheme produces better rainfall totals over the entire storm, the Kain-Fritsch cumulus scheme promotes higher and more realistic hourly extreme precipitation totals. Analysis indicates the Kain-Fritsch runs are correlated with larger resolved grid-scale vertical moisture fluxes, which are produced through the influence of parameterized convection on the larger-scale circulation and the subsequent convergence and ascent of moisture. Results show that WRF qualitatively reproduces spatial precipitation patterns during the storm, albeit with some errors in timing. This case study indicates that whilst regional climate simulations of an extreme event such as Newy in WRF may be well represented at daily scales irrespective of the physics scheme used, the representation at hourly scales is likely to be physics scheme dependent.     

Impact of Boundary-Layer Processes on Near-Surface Turbulence Within the West African Monsoon

High frequency measurements of near-surface meteorological data acquired in north Benin during the 2006 West African monsoon seasonal cycle, in the context of the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis (AMMA) experiment, offer insight into the characteristics of surface turbulence in relation to planetary boundary-layer (PBL) processes. A wide range of conditions is encountered at the lower and upper limits of the PBL: (i) from water-stressed to well-fed vegetation, and (ii) from small to large humidity and temperature jumps at the PBL top inversion, due to the Saharan air layer overlying the monsoonal flow. As a result, buoyant convection at the surface and entrainment at the PBL top play very different roles according to the considered scalar. We show that, when the boundary-layer height reaches the shear level between the monsoonal and Harmattan flows, the temperature source and humidity sink at the boundary-layer top are sufficient to allow the entrainment to affect the entire boundary layer down to the surface. This situation occurs mainly during the drying and moistening periods of the monsoon cycle and affects the humidity statistics in particular. In this case, the humidity turbulent characteristics at the surface are no longer driven solely by buoyant convection, but also by entrainment at the boundary-layer top. Consequently, the Monin–Obukhov similarity theory appears to fail for the parameterisation of humidity-related moments.     

Aquifer–peatland connectivity in southern Quebec (Canada)

In areas where peatlands are abundant, they are likely to play a significant role in the hydrological and hydrogeological dynamics of a watershed. Although individual case studies are reported in the literature, there is a large range of aquifer–peatland interactions and there is a need to understand the controls of these interactions. The objectives of this study were (1) to better understand aquifer–peatland connections and how these may be predicted by geology and geomorphic location and (2) to provide a variety of reference sites for glacial geological settings. Slope and depression peatlands were studied in the Abitibi‐Témiscamingue region and in the St. Lawrence Lowlands, two contrasting regions of southern Quebec. A total of 12 transects that span a shallow aquifer–peatland interface were instrumented with piezometers. Field investigations included peatland characterization, monthly water level monitoring, and continuous hydraulic head measurements with pressure transducers. The results indicate that 7 of the 12 transects receive groundwater from the surrounding shallow aquifer. At the peatland margin, four lateral flow patterns were identified and associated with slope peatlands (parallel inflow and divergent flow) and with depression peatlands (convergent flow and parallel outflow). Vertical hydraulic gradients suggest that water flows mainly downwards, i.e. from the peatland to the underlying mineral deposits. Vertical connectivity appears to decrease as the distance from the peatland margin increases. All of these exchanges are important components in the sustainability of peatland hydrogeological functions. The regional comparison of aquifer–peatland flow dynamics performed in this study provides a new set of referenced data for the assessment of aquifer–peatland connectivity. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Increased plastic litter cover affects the foraging activity of the sandy intertidal gastropod Nassarius pullus

This study analyzed the foraging behavior of the gastropod Nassarius pullus on garbage-impacted sandy shores of Talim Bay, Batangas, Philippines. The effect of different levels of plastic garbage cover on foraging efficiency was investigated. Controlled in situ baiting experiments were conducted to quantify aspects of foraging behavior as affected by the levels of plastic litter cover in the foraging area. The results of the study indicated that the gastropod’s efficiency in locating and in moving towards a food item generally decreased as the level of plastic cover increased. Prolonged food searching time and increased self-burial in sand were highly correlated with increased plastic cover. The accuracy of orientation towards the actual position of the bait decreased significantly when the amount of plastic cover increased to 50%. These results are consistent with the significant decreases in the abundance of the gastropod observed during periods of deposition of large amounts of plastic and other debris on the shore.     

Influence of glacier advance on the development of the multipart Riffeltal rock glacier,Central Austrian Alps

The multipart Riffeltal rock glacier, located in a tributary valley of the Kaunertal, Tyrol, Austria is investigated to enlarge the knowledge about spatial and temporal development of rock glaciers in and at the margins of pro‐glacial areas and to get a better understanding of glacier–rock glacier interactions. The subject of interest consists of a complex system of two adjacent rock glacier tongues and various superposed lobes with differing ages, origin and root zones, and therefore diverse development. To determine the reasons for their diverging development, the internal structure and permafrost occurrence on and in the surrounding area of the rock glacier were studied by application of geomorphological mapping, geophysical methods and measurement of the basal temperature of the winter snow cover (BTS). Permafrost modelling was performed on the basis of BTS data and land surface parameters derived from a high resolution airborne laser scanning (ALS) digital elevation model (DEM). Additionally, the ALS data were used to measure vertical and horizontal changes of the rock glacier surface between 2006 and 2012. Glacier–rock glacier interactions during and since the Little Ice Age (LIA) are evident for the development of the studied rock glacier. A geomorphic map gives important information about the connection between glacial advance or retreat and permafrost or ground ice occurrence. The combination of all information helps in the analysis of diverse kinematic action of neighbouring rock glacier tongues. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Response of Tidal Creek Fish Communities to Dredging and Coastal Development Pressures in a Shallow-Water Estuary

To investigate the effects of dredging and associated development pressures (i.e., shoreline armoring, developed land use) on fish, three sets of paired dredged and undredged tidal creeks were surveyed within Lynnhaven River, Virginia. Fish species diversity, community abundance, biomass, and size structure were compared among creeks and related to watershed, shoreline, and physicochemical characteristics. Mean fish community characteristics (e.g., abundance) were similar among creeks; however, species-specific analysis revealed subtle differences. Species biomass differed between dredged and undredged creeks, though species abundance was similar. Turbidity highly influenced differences in species abundance among creeks, while organic matter, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and shoreline hardening may be influencing biomass patterns. The most recently dredged creek appeared to provide less suitable nursery habitat for some species than historically dredged creeks, suggesting initial adverse effects with eventual recovery. Protective measures, such as preservation of marshes, dredge depth, and time-of-year restrictions, may be moderating development and dredging pressures.