The effect of crystallization time on plagioclase grain shape in dolerites

The average aspect ratio of plagioclase, measured in thin section, varies systematically through dolerite sills, with a symmetrical “M”-shaped profile observed in sills thinner than ~200 m. Thicker sills show the same marginal reversal at the base, but average aspect ratios appear to continue increasing towards the top, creating an “S”-shaped profile. A distorted “M”-shaped profile is visible in the stratigraphic variation of plagioclase average aspect ratios in the prehistoric Makaopuhi lava lake, with the centre of the “M” in the olivine-enriched horizon close to the base of the lake. Higher overall values of average aspect ratio are observed in thin sills compared to thicker sills, demonstrating that the plagioclase in more slowly crystallized bodies is more equant than that in more rapidly crystallized bodies. There is a strong correlation between the plagioclase average aspect ratio in the central parts of the sills and the crystallization time calculated using a simple one-dimensional thermal model assuming conductive cooling. The cause of the marginal reversals in average aspect ratio is not well understood, but may result from early grain impingement in the developing crystal mushy layer.     

On the regional distribution of mitigation costs in a global cap-and-trade regime

This paper analyzes the regional distribution of climate change mitigation costs in a global cap-and-trade regime. Four stylized burden-sharing rules are considered, ranging from GDP-based permit allocations to schemes that foresee a long-term convergence of per-capita emission permits. The comparison of results from three structurally different hybrid, integrated energy-economy models allows us to derive robust insights as well as identify sources of uncertainty with respect to the regional distribution of the costs of climate change mitigation. We find that regional costs of climate change mitigation may deviate substantially from the global mean. For all models, the mitigation cost average of the four scenarios is higher for China than for the other macro-regions considered. Furthermore, China suffers above-world-average mitigation costs for most burden-sharing rules in the long-term. A decomposition of mitigation costs into (a) primary (domestic) abatement costs and (b) permit trade effects, reveals that the large uncertainty about the future development of carbon prices results in substantial uncertainties about the financial transfers associated with carbon trade for a given allocation scheme. This variation also implies large uncertainty about the regional distribution of climate policy costs.     

Calibrating biogeochemical and physical climate proxies from non-varved lake sediments with meteorological data: methods and case studies

Lake sediment records are underrepresented in comprehensive, quantitative, high-resolution (sub-decadal), multi-proxy climate reconstructions for the past millennium. This is largely a consequence of the difficulty of calibrating biogeochemical lake sediment proxies to meteorological time series (calibration-in-time). Thanks to recent methodological advances, it is now possible. This paper outlines a step-by-step, specifically tailored methodology, with practical suggestions for calibrating and validating biogeochemical proxies from lake sediments to meteorological data. This approach includes: (1) regional climate data; (2) site selection; (3) coring and core selection; (4) core chronology; (5) data acquisition; and (6) data analysis and statistical methods. We present three case studies that used non-varved lake sediments from remote areas in the Central Chilean Andes, where little a priori information was available on the local climate and lakes, or their responses to climate variability. These case studies illustrate the potential value and application of a calibration-in-time approach to non-varved lake sediments for developing quantitative, high-resolution climate reconstructions.     

The acceleration of back-scattered beam electrons in a return-current electric field

Using a 1-D hybrid model of the electron beam bombardment in a flare loop, it is demonstrated that beam electrons, back-scattered in dense layers of the solar atmosphere, are accelerated in the return-current electric field. This effect is shown in two regimes of the electron beam bombardment: (a) with a monoenergetic quasi-steady beam, and (b) with a sequence of 4 pulse beams. It is suggested that the mirroring of electrons at loop magnetic mirrors can amplify this process. The role of such acceleration for the formation of a collisionless return-current, and thus for a decrease of return-current losses, is discussed.     

New Solar Broad-Band Hard X-Ray Spectrometer: First Results

The scientific and operational aims of the Czech-made Hard X-Ray Spectrometer (HXRS) launched onboard the U.S. Department of Energy Multispectral Thermal Imager satellite (MTI), on 12 March 2000 are discussed. The principal operating characteristics of the instrument such as the temporal resolution, energy band selection, spectral sensitivity, and the in-flight calibration procedure are described as well as the technical details of the spectrometer including detectors, shielding (against charged particles) and electronic design. The MTI host satellite and its orbit are briefly described. Recent observations by the 3 GHz Ondřejov radiometer are compared with HXRS data to demonstrate one example of the HXRS data utilization: the temporal relation between hard X-rays and radio emission. These results show relatively long time delays (2–14 s) of the GHz broadband radio pulses relative to the hard X-ray emission peaks. Access to the HXRS data base via the Internet is provided.     

The thickness of the crystal mush on the floor of the Bushveld magma chamber

The thickness of the crystal mush on magma chamber floors can be constrained using the offset between the step-change in the median value of dihedral angles formed at the junctions between two grains of plagioclase and a grain of another phase (typically clinopyroxene, but also orthopyroxene and olivine) and the first appearance or disappearance of the liquidus phase associated with the step-change in median dihedral angle. We determined the mush thickness in the Rustenburg Layered Suite of the Bushveld Complex at clinopyroxene-in (in Lower Main Zone) and magnetite-in (in Upper Zone). We also examined an intermittent appearance of cumulus apatite in Upper Zone, using both the appearance and disappearance of cumulus apatite. In all cases, the mush thickness does not exceed 4 m. These values are consistent with field observations of a mechanically rigid mush at the bases of both magnetitite and chromitite layers overlying anorthosite. Mush thickness of the order of a few metres suggests that neither gravitationally-driven compaction nor compositional convection within the mush layer is likely to have been important processes during solidification: adcumulates in the Bushveld are most likely to have formed at the top of the mush during primary crystallisation. Similarly, it is unlikely either that migration of reactive liquids occurs through large stretches of stratigraphy, or that layering is formed by mechanisms other than primary accumulation.     

Comparative carbon emission assessments of recycled and natural aggregate concrete:Environmental influence of cement content

This work examines the environmental and geochemical impact of recycled aggregate concrete produc-tion with properties representative for structural applications.The environmental influence of cement content,aggregate production,transportation,and waste landfilling is analysed by undertaking a life cycle assessment and considering a life cycle inventory largely specific for the region.To obtain a detailed insight into the optimum life cycle parameters,a sensitivity study is carried out in which supplementary cementitious materials,different values of natural-to-recycled aggregate content ratio and case-specific transportation distances were considered.The results show that carbon emissions were between 323 and 332 kgCO2e per cubic metre of cement only natural aggregate concrete.These values can be reduced by up to 17％by replacing 25％of the cement with fly ash.By contrast,carbon emissions can increase when natural coarse aggregates are replaced by recycled aggregates in proportions of 50％and 100％,and trans-portation is not included in analysis.However,the concrete with 50％recycled aggregate presented lower increase,only 0.3％and 3.4％for normal and high strength concrete,respectively.In some cases,the rel-ative contribution of transportation to the total carbon emissions increased when cement was replaced by fly ash in proportions of 25％,and case-specific transportation distances were considered.In absolute values,the concrete mixes with 100％recycled aggregates and 25％fly ash had lower carbon emissions than concrete with cement and natural aggregates only.Higher environmental benefits can be obtained when the transportation distances of fly ash are relatively short(15-25 km)and the cement replacement by fly ash is equal or higher than 25％,considering that the mechanical properties are adequate for prac-tical application.The observations from this paper show that recycled aggregate concrete with strength characteristics representative for structural members can have lower carbon emissions than conventional concrete,recommending them as an alternative to achieving global sustainability standards in construction.     

Multi-Wavelength Analysis of High-Energy Electrons in Solar Flares: A Case Study of the August 20, 2002 Flare

A multi-wavelength spatial and temporal analysis of solar high-energy electrons is conducted using the August 20, 2002 flare of an unusually flat (γ₁ = 1.8) hard X-ray spectrum. The flare is studied using RHESSI, Hα, radio, TRACE, and MDI observations with advanced methods and techniques never previously applied in the solar flare context. A new method to account for X-ray Compton backscattering in the photosphere (photospheric albedo) has been used to deduce the primary X-ray flare spectra. The mean electron flux distribution has been analysed using both forward fitting and model-independent inversion methods of spectral analysis. We show that the contribution of the photospheric albedo to the photon spectrum modifies the calculated mean electron flux distribution, mainly at energies below ∼100 keV. The positions of the Hα emission and hard X-ray sources with respect to the current-free extrapolation of the MDI photospheric magnetic field and the characteristics of the radio emission provide evidence of the closed geometry of the magnetic field structure and the flare process in low altitude magnetic loops. In agreement with the predictions of some solar flare models, the hard X-ray sources are located on the external edges of the Hα emission and show chromospheric plasma heated by the non-thermal electrons. The fast changes of Hα intensities are located not only inside the hard X-ray sources, as expected if they are the signatures of the chromospheric response to the electron bombardment, but also away from them.