The present-day atmosphere of Mars: Where does it come from?

Recent observations and missions to Mars have provided us with new insight into the past habitability of Mars and its history. At the same time they have raised many questions on the planet evolution. We show that even with the few data available we can propose a scenario for the evolution of the Martian atmosphere in the last three billion years. Our model is obtained with a back integration of the Martian atmosphere, and takes into account the effects of volcanic degassing, which constitutes an input of volatiles, and atmospheric escape into space. We focus on CO₂, the predominant Martian atmospheric gas.Volcanic CO₂ degassing rates are obtained for different models of numerical model crust production rates [Breuer, D., Spohn, T. 2003. Early plate tectonics versus single-plate tectonics on Mars: Evidence from magnetic field history and crust evolution. J. Geophys. Res. - Planets, 108, E7, 5072, Breuer, D., Spohn, T., 2006. Viscosity of the Martian mantle and its initial temperature: Constraints from crust formation history and the evolution of the magnetic field. Planet. Space Sci. 54 (2006) 153–169; Manga, M., Wenzel, M., Zaranek, S.E., 2006. Mantle Plumes and Long-lived Volcanism on Mars as Result of a Layered Mantle. American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting 2006, Abstract #P31C-0149.] and constrained on observation. By estimating the volatile contents of the lavas, the amount of volatiles released in the atmosphere is estimated for different scenarios. Both non-thermal processes (related to the solar activity) and thermal processes are studied and non-thermal processes are incorporated in our modelling of the escape [Chassefière, E., Leblanc, F., Langlais, B., 2006, The combined effects of escape and magnetic field history at Mars. Planet. Space Sci. Volume 55, Issue 3, Pages 343–357.]. We used measurements from ASPERA and Mars Express and these models to estimate the amount of lost atmosphere.An evolution of the CO₂ pressure consistent with its present state is then obtained. A crustal production rate of at least 0.01 km³/year is needed for the atmosphere to be at steady state. Moreover, we show that for most of the scenarios a rapid loss of the primary (and primordial) atmosphere due to atmospheric escape is required in the first 2 Gyr in order to obtain the present-day atmosphere. When CO₂ concentration in the mantle is high enough (i.e. more than 800 ppm), our results imply that present-day atmosphere would have a volcanic origin and would have been created between 1 Gyr and 2 Gyr ago even for models with low volcanic activity. If the volcanic activity and the degassing are intense enough, then the atmosphere can even be entirely secondary and as young as 1 Gyr. However, with low activity and low CO₂ concentration (less than 600 ppm), the present-day atmosphere is likely to be for the major part primordial.     

Diatom thanatocoenosis in a middle Galician Ría: Spatial patterns and their relationship to the seasonal diatom cycle in the water column and hydrographic conditions

Modern diatom distribution patterns in the surface sediment of the Ferrol Ría and their relationship to the hydrography and diatom patterns in the water column were studied to determine the hydrographic influence on the record of these biogenic components. Diatom abundance in the water column was assessed for different oceanographic periods and compared with the biosiliceous sedimentary record. Very low abundances were found in the water column during the winter, whereas in spring and summer, diatoms proliferated. Chaetoceros spp. formed the bulk of the water column community during spring and summer, followed by Thalassionema nitzschioides and Rhizosolenia spp. Nitzschia longissima represented a significant portion of the winter assemblage, together with Paralia sulcata and benthic taxa. Leptocylindrus danicus, N. longissima and Skeletonema costatum characterized the autumn campaign, when stratification of the waters occurs, with L. danicus being especially abundant in the outer ría.Seasonal hydrographic and associated productivity patterns govern the abundance and assemblage of the diatoms preserved in surface sediments. Samples located in the inner ría area and its margins exhibited the highest abundances of diatoms, and were primarily dominated by benthic species. The freshwater group, crysophycean cysts and phytoliths were present in the landward stations influenced by river runoff. The middle ría was characterized by P. sulcata and Thalassiosira spp., with minor occurrences of the benthic and freshwater group. Chaetoceros R.S., L. danicus R.S. and T. nitzschioides typified the outer ría, an assemblage that corresponds to nutrient-rich coastal areas of high productivity influenced by oceanic waters, demonstrating the impact of oceanic waters flowing into the embayment due to enhanced tidal mixing through the narrow channel. Therefore, sediment diatom assemblages reflect diatom production patterns in the water column of the Ría. However, we must proceed with caution when interpreting the paleorecord in the inner area due to the high contribution of allochthonous taxa, which is indicative of low water depths. This paper contributes to a better understanding of diatom thanatocoenosis in the Galician Rías, where very few studies of this kind have been done to date.     

Magmatic source enrichment by slab-derived melts in a young post-collision setting, central Mindanao (Philippines)

Central Mindanao was the locus of a Pliocene (4–5 Ma old) arc–arc collision event followed by basaltic to dacitic magmatism starting at 2.3 Ma, representing the most voluminous volcanic field in the Philippines. Lava compositions range from calc-alkaline to shoshonitic. Adakites and Nb-enriched basalts are among the magmatic products. All the lavas are Na-rich (up to 4.88%), with Na₂O/K₂O ratios from 2.5 to 6.5. Sr, Nd and Pb isotopic compositions are similar to MORB, except for some shoshonitic lavas that have slightly less radiogenic Nd ratios. K-enrichment in basalts can be related to both fractional crystallization (FC) at moderate pressures and to partial melting of an enriched source. Trace element systematics indicate that the sub-central Mindanao mantle is characterized by the presence of garnet, phlogopite, amphibole, and perhaps some titanate phase. The enrichment of this source is attributed to the interaction of slab-derived melts, i.e., adakites, with the arc mantle. This would explain the presence of Nb-enriched basalts, transitional adakites and high-magnesium andesites, as well as the bulk Na-enrichment and relatively unradiogenic character of the central Mindanao lavas. We envision an ion-exchange type of enrichment, in which the HFSE, LILE and LREE, mobilized during slab melting, are preferentially enriched in the metasomatized mantle, resulting in a diversity of post-collision magma compositions. The MORB-like isotopic signatures of the central Mindanao lavas preclude important contributions of slab-derived hydrous fluids, sediments, continental crust or an OIB-type contaminant. Slab melting after cessation of subduction is deemed possible by thermal rebound of previously depressed geotherms. Initial contributions to mantle enrichment in post-collision sites may thus come from slab melts. In most other cases of post-collision magmatism, however, this signature can be easily masked by enrichments coming from other sources, e.g., the continental lithosphere.     

A paleoclimate record for the past 250,000 years from Summer Lake, Oregon, USA: II. Sedimentology, paleontology and geochemistry

We have obtained a detailed paleoenvironmental record in the Summer Lake Basin, Oregon (northwestern Great Basin, US) spanning from 250ka-5 ka. This record is derived from core and outcrop sites extending from a proximal deltaic setting to near the modern depocenter. Lithostratigraphic, paleontologic (ostracodes and pollen) and geochemical indicators all provide evidence for hydroclimate and climate change over the study interval.Lithostratigraphic analysis of the Summer Lake deposits allows subdivision into a series of unconformity - or paraconformity-bound lithosomes. The unconformity and facies histories indicate that the lake underwent several major lake-level excursions through the Middle and Late Pleistocene. High stands occurred between ~200 and ~165 ka, between ~89 and 50 ka and between ~25 and 13 ka. Uppermost Pleistocene and Holocene sediments have been removed by deflation of the basin, with the exception of a thin veneer of late Holocene sediment. These high stands correspond closely with Marine Oxygen Isotope Stages 6, 4 and 2, within the margin of error associated with the Summer Lake age model. A major unconformity from ~158 ka until ~102 ka (duration varies between sites) interrupts the record at both core and outcrop sites.Lake level fluctuations, in turn are closely linked with TOC and salinity fluctuations, such that periods of lake high stands correlate with periods of relatively low productivity, fresher water and increased water inflow/evaporation ratios. Paleotemperature estimates based on palynology and geochemistry (Mg/Ca ratios in ostracodes) indicate an overall decrease in temperature from ~236 ka-165 ka, with a brief interlude of warming and drying immediately after this (prior to the major unconformity). This temperature decrease was superimposed on higher frequency variations in temperature that are not evident in the sediments deposited during the past 100 ka. Indicators disagree about temperatures immediately following the unconformity (~102-95 ka), but most suggest warmer temperatures between ~100-89 ka, followed by a rapid and dramatic cooling event. Cooler conditions persisted throughout most of the remainder of the Pleistocene at Summer Lake, with the possible exception of brief warm intervals about 27-23 ka. Paleotemperature estimates for the proximal deltaic site are more erratic than for more distal sites, indicative of short term air temperature excursions that are buffered in deeper water.Estimates of paleotemperature from Mg/Ca ratios are generally in good agreement with evidence from upland palynology. However, there is a significant discordance between the upland pollen record and lake indicators with respect to paleoprecipitation for some parts of the record. Several possibilities may explain this discordance. We favor a direct link between lake level and salinity fluctuations and climate change, but we also recognize the possibility that some of these hydroclimate changes in the Summer Lake record may have resulted from episodic drainage captures of the Chewaucan River between the Summer Lake and Lake Abert basins.     

Water column characterisation on the Azores platform and at the sea mounts south of the archipelago

This study provides data concerning the hydrography and water chemistry of the Atlantic region between 29-38° N and 27-31° W, and establishes background values for dissolved Cu, Cd, Pb and As. Three water masses were identified: the Eastern North Atlantic Central Water (ENACW), the Mediterranean Water (MW) and the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). The ENACW exhibits a clear meridional gradient of temperature and salinity, with comparatively high values at the southern sites and lower values on the Azores platform. The ENACW, which includes the euphotic zone, also had comparatively high concentrations of oxygen and lower concentrations of nutrients and metals. The Cu, Cd and Pb results suggest that new background concentrations for OSPAR Region V (the Wider Atlantic) should be established as follows: 0.15-13nM for Cu, 0.05-1.4nM for Cd and 0.03-5nM for Pb. The background concentrations of As for OSPAR Region V should be 7-28nM.     

Late Holocene paleoceanography and climate variability over the Mackenzie Slope (Beaufort Sea,Canadian Arctic)

Late Holocene paleoceanography and climate variability of the Southeastern Beaufort Sea (Canadian Arctic) have been investigated on the basis of sedimentary cores collected over the Mackenzie Slope. Piston, trigger and box cores were sampled at station 803 in 2004 aboard the CCGS Amundsen at 218 m water depth. The chronology of the piston core is constrained by 4 AMS-¹⁴C dates, as the sedimentation rate in the box core is assessed from ²¹⁰Pb data. We obtain a continuous composite sequence covering the last 4600 years, with a sedimentation rate of ~ 140 cm.kyr^? 1. Transfer functions (modern analogue technique) based on dinoflagellate cyst (dinocyst) assemblages were used to reconstruct the evolution of sea-surface conditions over the time period covered by the cores.Palynological data reveal that dinocyst assemblages are dominated by Operculodinium centrocarpum sensu lato (mean of 43.3%) throughout the core, with the accompanying taxa Brigantedinium spp. (19.6%), Islandinium minutum (15.6%) and cysts of Pentapharsodinium dalei (13.7%). Four zones have been established on the basis of dinocyst relative abundances. Dinocyst assemblage zone 1 (D1), from 4600 to 2700 cal years BP, is dominated by O. centrocarpum (mean of 49.0%). In zone D2 (2700–1500 cal years BP), the relative abundances of O. centrocarpum decrease (34.4%) in favour of the opportunistic, heterotrophic taxa Brigantedinium spp. (28.8%) and cysts of Polykrikos sp. var. arctic/quadratus (2.8%). Dinocyst zone D3 (1500–30 cal years BP or 450–1920 AD) is characterised by the high relative abundance of the peridinioid taxa I. minutum (19.9%). The last zone (D4), spanning from 1920 to 2004 AD, is again dominated by O. centrocarpum (44.5%), and shows low relative abundances of Brigantedinium spp. and cf. Echinidinium karaense.Quantitative reconstructions of past sea-surface parameters (August sea-surface temperature: SST, August sea-surface salinity: SSS, and duration of sea-ice cover) indicate relatively stable conditions over the last 4.6 kyr, with episodic cooling events (SST of ~ 1.5 °C below the modern value of 6 °C) that took place between 700 and 1820 AD. We associate the last and the longest of these cooling events (1560–1820 AD) with the Little Ice Age. Reconstructed SSS shows decadal oscillations since 1920 AD that we tentatively associate with the accumulation of freshwater by the Beaufort Gyre and the subsequent Great Salinity Anomalies. Our data suggest that similar salinity anomalies could have occurred ca. 1860 and 1790 AD.Stable isotopic data show a slight increase in δ¹³C values (from ~?27.1‰ at the base to ~?25.8‰ at the top) over the last 4.6 kyr that we associate with the gradual increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration as recorded by Antarctic ice cores. Variations in the δ¹⁵N profile suggest variations in Pacific water influence from 4600 to ~ 1300 cal years BP, associated with centennial scale shifts of the Arctic Oscillation phases.     

A nonlinear mixed model for the assessment of traffic noise levels in urban areas

Quantification of traffic noise levels in urban areas can be especially useful for environmental and public health policies. A statistical model is proposed here for this quantification in small urban areas. The model is nonlinear and mixed, with two components: a fixed component for traffic noise emission (source effect) and a random component for assessing traffic noise propagation. The proposed model requires only sample data and has been used to estimate basic noise indicators established in European standards. A composite indicator, the Lden indicator, has been computed and used to draw up a noise ranking of urban areas. The proposed approach is applied to the city of Leganés (Spain).     

Associations between outdoor air quality and birth weight: a geostatistical sequential simulation approach in Coastal Alentejo,Portugal

Several environmental health studies suggest birth weight is associated with outdoor air pollution during gestation. In these studies, exposure assignments are usually based on measurements collected at air quality monitoring stations that do not coincide with health data locations. So, estimated exposures can be misleading if they do not take into account the uncertainty of exposure estimates. In this article we conducted a semi-ecological study to analyze associations between air quality during gestation and birth weight. Air quality during gestation was measured using a biomonitor, as an alternative to traditional air quality monitoring stations data, in order to increase spatial resolution of exposure measurements. To our knowledge this is the first time that the association between air quality and birth weight is studied using biomonitors. To address exposure uncertainty at health locations, we applied geostatistical simulation on biomonitoring data that provided multiple equally probable realizations of biomonitoring data, with reproduction of observed histogram and spatial covariance while matching for conditioning data. Each simulation represented a measure of exposure at each location. The set of simulations provided a measure of exposure uncertainty at each location. To incorporate uncertainty in our analysis we used generalized linear models, fitted simulation outputs and health data on birth weights and assessed statistical significance of exposure parameter using non-parametric bootstrap techniques. We found a positive association between air quality and birth weight. However, this association was not statistically significant. We also found a modest but significant association between air quality and birth weight among babies exposed to gestational tobacco smoke.     

Paleomagnetism of early cretaceous arapey formation (Northern Uruguay)

We report detailed rock-magnetic and paleomagnetic directional data from 35 lava flows (302 standard paleomagnetic cores) sampled in the Central-Northern region of Uruguay in order to contribute to the study of the paleosecular variation of the Earth’s magnetic field during early Cretaceous and to obtain precise Cretaceous paleomagnetic pole positions for stable South America. The average unit direction is rather precisely determined from 29 out of 35 sites. All A₉₅ confidence angles are less than 8°, which points to small within-site dispersion and high directional stability. Normal polarity magnetizations are revealed for 19 sites and 10 are reversely magnetized. Two other sites yield well defined intermediate polarities. The mean direction, supported by a positive reversal test is in reasonably good agreement with the expected paleodirection for Early Cretaceous stable South America and in disagreement with a 10° clockwise rotation found in the previous studies. On the other hand, paleomagnetic poles are significantly different from the pole position suggested by hotspot reconstructions, which may be due to true polar wander or the hotspot motion. Our data suggest a different style of secular variation during (and just before) the Cretaceous Normal Superchron and the last 5 Ma, supporting a link between paleosecular variation and reversal frequency.