The microstructure of minerals in coarse-grained Ca-Al-rich inclusions from the Allende meteorite

The microstructure and microchemistry of minerals in Ca-Al-rich, coarse-grained inclusions (CAI) from the Allende meteorite have been investigated with transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Spinels contain only low to moderate dislocation densities and are characterized by a ubiquitous, fine black spotty texture believed to originate from a slightly non-stoichiometric composition. Ti-Al-pyroxenes are relatively featureless, but contain veins of secondary phases apparently deposited in unhealed cracks. Chromite has been identified in the veins, suggesting transport of oxidized iron during alteration. Melilites exhibit the greatest variety of microstructures and are the most heavily altered phase in CAI. High dislocation densities are common and crystals exhibit considerable internal strain, indicating that they have not been annealed. Alteration occurs both as veins along cracks and in fronts extending across several grains. Plagioclase is commonly twinned, but dislocations are rare. The size and morphology of antiphase domains suggest a high temperature of formation with significant low-temperature annealing. Submicron pyroxene precipitates are a ubiquitous and unusual feature of Allende plagioclase whose properties are most consistent with prolonged slow cooling and equilibration after plagioclase crystallization. The precipitates appear to be sufficiently abundant to contain the majority of Mg present in plagioclase but do not easily account for Na and Ti abundances. Wollastonite needles from a cavity in a “fluffy” Type A inclusion exhibit the growth habits and relatively perfect external surfaces indicative of direct condensation from a vapor. Alteration products are predominantly crystalline and alteration of melilite appears to have proceeded primarily by solid-state diffusion at a temperature of approximately 920°K. Overall, the TEM observations suggest that CAI formed under near equilibrium conditions characterized by slow cooling and that solid-state bulk diffusion was the major process affecting their post-crystallization history.     

Morphotectonic evaluation of the Delhi region in northern India,and its significance in environmental management

This paper deals with the morphotectonic evaluation of the Delhi region in northern India to understand its impact on land use and urban development. To accommodate heavy urbanization and population rise (being the capital of India), the area has undergone tremendous environmental degradation resulting from a mismatch between adopted land use and morphotectonic considerations. The geomorphic and drainage signatures of the region have evolved out of interaction of varied geological parameters including neotectonic activities. We have evaluated the changes in the drainage pattern of the Yamuna River in the Delhi region to underline its significance in geomorphic evolution and subsequent land use and/or land suitability. The Yamuna River has shown variations both in channel position and geometry over the last two centuries. The observed migration pattern of the river (shifting of confluences, position and disposition of palaeochannels, etc.,) cannot be attributed to normal river phenomenon and appears to have been effected by neotectonic changes. In addition, some case studies are discussed to underline the significance of geomorphic factors in urban development.     

Storm catastrophes in the United States

A unique historical data set describing the 142 storms each producing losses in excess of $100 million in the United States during the 1950–89 period were analyzed to describe their temporal characteristics. The storms caused $66.2 billion in losses (in 1991 values), 76% of the nation's insured storm losses in this period. These extreme storm catastrophes (SCs) were most prevalent in the south, southeast, northeast, and central U.S., with few in and west of the Rocky Mountains. Storm incidences were high in the 1950s, low in the 1960s-early 1970s, and increased in the 1980s. Losses due to SCs peaked in the 1950s, again in the late 1960s, with a lesser peak after 1985. The areal extent of storm losses peaked after 1975 and was least in the 1960s. The temporal variations of the three storm measures (incidence, losses, and extent) did not agree except when they all peaked in the 1950s. Regionally-derived time distributions of SCs showed a marked north-south differences in the United States with a U-shaped 40-year distribution in the northern half of the nation, and a relatively flat trend until a peak in the 1980s in the southern regions. The temporal distributions of hurricane-caused catastrophes differed regionally with occurrences in the prime areas, the southern, southeastern, and northeastern U.S., each quite different. Temporal distributions of thunderstorm and winter storm catastrophes were regionally more uniform.     

Temporal evolution of backward erosion piping in small-scale experiments

Backward erosion piping (BEP) is a form of internal erosion which can lead to failure of levees and dams. Most research focused on the critical head difference at which piping failure occurs. Two aspects have received less attention, namely (1) the temporal evolution of piping and (2) the local hydraulic conditions in the pipe and at the pipe tip. We present small-scale experiments with local pressure measurements in the pipe during equilibrium and pipe progression for different sands and degrees of hydraulic loading. The experiments confirm a positive relation between progression rate and grain size as well as the degree of hydraulic overloading. Furthermore, the analysis of local hydraulic conditions shows that the rate of BEP progression can be better explained by the bed shear stress and sediment transport in the pipe than by the seepage velocity at the pipe tip. The experiments show how different processes contribute to the piping process and these insights provide a first empirical basis for modeling pipe development using coupled seepage-sediment transport equations.

     

Hot dry rocks: An inexhaustible and renewable source of energy

Geological, methodological, and economic aspects of the production and utilization of petrother mal resources (heat of “dry” rocks) for electric energy production and heat supply are considered. Possibility of the utilization of natural fracture zones or artificial fissure zones, which are created by hydraulic fracturing of underground rock massifs, is noted. Application of new tools for drilling deep wells makes the petrochemical energy competitive relative to both other types of renewable resources and traditional organic fuel.     

Wave forces on, and water-surface fluctuations around a vertical cylinder encircled by a perforated square caisson

The wave forces and moments on and the water surface fluctuations around a vertical circular cylinder encircled by a perforated square caisson were experimentally investigated. The porosity of the outer square caisson was varied from 4.24 to 14.58%. The in-line wave forces on the inner vertical cylinder are influenced by changing the porosity of the outer caisson, whereas the variations in the water surface fluctuations are less influenced in this porosity range. The in-line moment on the vertical cylinder is relatively less sensitive when the porosity is increased from 4.24 to 8.75%, but varies substantially when it is increased from 8.75 to 14.58%. The force and moment ratio (i.e. the ratio of the force or moment on the vertical cylinder, when it is encircled by the perforated caisson to the force or moment on the cylinder without any protection around it) reduces with increased wave height, H, and wave length, L, whereas the wave height ratio (ratio of the wave height at a point in the vicinity of the structure to the incident wave height) is less sensitive for the varying H and L. A new non-dimensional parameter, p^1.5 (D/L)/(H/d), is introduced to predict the in-line force and moment on the inner vertical cylinder, where d is local water depth, D is the diameter of the inner cylinder and p is the porosity of the outer caisson in percentage. Simple predictive equations for forces, moments and water surface fluctuations are provided.     

Comparative toxicities of chlorinated biphenyls on sea urchin egg fertilisation and embryogenesis

The aim of this study was to compare the biological actions of selected chlorinated biphenyls (CB's) (with different degrees of chlorine substitution), using the sea urchin test system, for their ability to affect fertilisation, embryogenesis and mitotic activity. Sea urchin embryos were exposed to the test agents throughout larval development or for shorter intervals (e.g. before or after hatching). Sperm or eggs were exposed before fertilisation, thereafter the contaminants were removed from embryo cultures. The results showed maximal activities from medium-chlorinated (tetra- and hexachloro-substituted) compounds, as compared to low- and high-chlorinated biphenyls (mono-, di- and octachloro-substituted), at nominal levels ranging from 10⁻⁶m to 10⁻⁵m. This held true for the different parameters and treatment schedules. Developmental defects were only detected following post hatching exposure of embryos to CB's, whereas pre-hatching exposure failed to reveal any embryological or cytogenetic abnormalities.     

Early Quaternary Age of the Final Stage of Volcanism in the Central Part of the Sredinny Range of Kamchatka (K–Ar Data)

Doklady Earth Sciences - A first set of K–Ar isotopic ages obtained, which allowed to estimate the age of the largest volcanoes of the Anaunsky Dol (3.2, 2.2 and 1.9 Ma) and eruptive centers...     

Volatile-induced transport of HFSE, REE, Th and U in arc magmas: evidence from zirconolite-bearing vesicles in potassic lavas of Lewotolo volcano (Indonesia)

Potassium-rich calc-alkaline lavas of Lewotolo volcano, situated in the East Sunda Arc, Indonesia, contain the rare mineral zirconolite (CaZrTi₂O₇). Samples in which tiny grains of this mineral (3–25 μm in size) were found span the entire range of lava compositions (47–62 wt% SiO₂). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first record of primary zirconolite in juvenile arc volcanics. The mineral forms part of a vesicle-filling assemblage consisting of a network of quenched feldspar crystals and an SiO₂ phase, probably cristobalite. High contents of Th, U and REE (up to 9.3, 4.3 and 15.6 wt% oxide respectively) and very high Fe contents (up to 13.5 wt% Fe₂O₃) distinguish these zirconolites from those of other rock types. The extraction of volatile-rich phases with changing compositions in successive stages is considered to be responsible for the zirconolite formation. We hypothesise that a fluid capable of transporting HFSE, REE, Th and U was extracted from the magma and (partly) crystallised within voids which had formed earlier upon saturation of an aqueous fluid. Assuming that zirconolite compositions largely reflect trace metal contents of the coexisting fluid phase, significant amounts of `immobile' elements must have been transported on a macroscopic scale. Our findings thus point to a late-stage transfer of HFSE, REE, Th and U between different domains in a cooling magma body. Such a volatile-induced redistribution of trace elements at shallow levels of high-K volcanic systems may be significant for conventional geochemical modelling of magma evolution and for Th–U disequilibrium studies. Received: 3 November 1999 / Accepted: 29 February 2000