Galactic Cosmic Ray Intensity in the Upcoming Minimum of the Solar Activity Cycle

During the prolonged and deep minimum of solar activity between cycles 23 and 24, an unusual behavior of the heliospheric characteristics and increased intensity of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) near the Earth’s orbit were observed. The maximum of the current solar cycle 24 is lower than the previous one, and the decline in solar and, therefore, heliospheric activity is expected to continue in the next cycle. In these conditions, it is important for an understanding of the process of GCR modulation in the heliosphere, as well as for applied purposes (evaluation of the radiation safety of planned space flights, etc.), to estimate quantitatively the possible GCR characteristics near the Earth in the upcoming solar minimum (~2019–2020). Our estimation is based on the prediction of the heliospheric characteristics that are important for cosmic ray modulation, as well as on numeric calculations of GCR intensity. Additionally, we consider the distribution of the intensity and other GCR characteristics in the heliosphere and discuss the intercycle variations in the GCR characteristics that are integral for the whole heliosphere (total energy, mean energy, and charge).     

Coherent GPS reflections from the sea surface

In this letter, we explore a method to obtain accurate ocean heights using measurements of the global positioning system (GPS) carrier phase after reflection on the sea surface. A carrier tracking algorithm is employed in measuring travel path differences between GPS direct and reflected signals collected from antennas suspended over a marine estuary, when roughness guarantees partially coherent reflections at the GPS L1 frequency. This technique proves to be sensitive to surface roughness and able to follow tide variations with a precision better than 5 cm (1-sigma) for sea states with significant wave heights below 10 cm. It is expected that this technique could be further extended to rougher sea states using GPS frequency combinations with longer synthetic wavelengths.     

Sources of Zircons from Cretaceous and Lower Paleogene Terrigenous Sequences of the Southern Koryak Upland and Western Kamchatka

The mineral composition of sandstones from Cretaceous–Lower Paleocene terrigenous sequences of the western Kamchatka–Ukelayat zone (southern Koryak Upland, western Kamchatka) suggests that the Okhotsk–Chukot volcanogenic belt and fragments of the Uda–Murgal island arc served as the most probable provenance. Fission-track dating of zircon showed that sandstones from this zone contain detrital zircon of several different-age populations. Fission tracks in zircon grains were nor subjected to secondary ignition. The age of young zircon population coincides with the biostratigraphic age of host sequences. Thus, results of dating of detrital zircon grains from sandstones, which did not experience heating above 215–240°C, indicate that this method is appropriate for dating fossil-free terrigenous sequences. The young zircon population in the sandstones is related to erosion of plagiogranite and diorite intrusions of the Uda–Murgal arc and outer zone of the Okhotsk–Chukot volcanic belt exposed at the day surface owing to differential vertical movements and rapid exhumation of blocks.     

Accuracy estimates for some global analytical models of the Earth’s main magnetic field on the basis of data on gradient magnetic surveys at stratospheric balloons

Two global analytical models of the main magnetic field of the Earth (MFE) have been used to determine their potential in deriving an anomalous MFE from balloon magnetic surveys conducted at altitudes of ～30 km. The daily mean spherical harmonic model (DMSHM) constructed from satellite data on the day of balloon magnetic surveys was analyzed. This model for the day of magnetic surveys was shown to be almost free of errors associated with secular variations and can be recommended for deriving an anomalous MFE. The error of the enhanced magnetic model (EMM) was estimated depending on the number of harmonics used in the model. The model limited by the first 13 harmonics was shown to be able to lead to errors in the main MFE of around 15 nT. The EMM developed to n = m = 720 and constructed on the basis of satellite and ground-based magnetic data fails to adequately simulate the anomalous MFE at altitudes of 30 km. To construct a representative model developed to m = n = 720, ground-based magnetic data should be replaced by data of balloon magnetic surveys for altitudes of ～30 km. The results of investigations were confirmed by a balloon experiment conducted by Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere, and Radio Wave Propagation of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Moscow Aviation Institute.     

Geochemistry of beryllium in Bulgarian coals

The beryllium content of about 3000 samples (coal, coaly shales, partings, coal lithotypes, and isolated coalified woods) from 16 Bulgarian coal deposits was determined by atomic emission spectrography. Mean Be concentrations in coal show great variability: from 0.9 to 35 ppm for the deposits studied. There was no clear-cut relationship between Be content and rank. The following mean and confidence interval Be values were measured: lignites, 2.6 ± 0.8 ppm; sub-bituminous coals, 8.2 ± 3.3 ppm; bituminous coals, 3.0 ± 1.2 ppm; and anthracites, 19 ± 9.0 ppm. The Be contents in coal and coaly shales for all deposits correlated positively suggesting a common source of the element. Many samples of the coal lithotypes vitrain and xylain proved to be richer in Be than the hosting whole coal samples as compared on ash basis. Up to tenfold increase in Be levels was routinely recorded in fusain. The ash of all isolated coalified woods was found to contain 1.1 to 50 times higher Be content relative to its global median value for coal inclusions.Indirect evidence shows that Be occurs in both organic and inorganic forms. Beryllium is predominantly organically bound in deposits with enhanced Be content, whereas the inorganic form prevails in deposits whose Be concentration approximates Clarke values.The enrichment in Be exceeding the coal Clarke value 2.4 to 14.5 times in some of the Bulgarian deposits is attributed to subsynchronous at the time of coal deposition hydrothermal and volcanic activity.     

Incidental capture of diamondback terrapin by crab pots

Two-hundred eighty-one diamondback terrapins (195♂, 86♀) were captured in baited and unbaited crab pots during premolt crab capture studies in South Carolina. Sampling was conducted four consecutive days each week from mid April to mid November, 1979, in the Ashley River estuary, and daily from April to July, 1980 and 1981, in the Wando River estuary. Fifty-five percent of the total were captured in April, and 32% in May. Males outnumbered females 2.3∶1, but this ratio may reflect crab pot entrance bias which restricted entry of large females. Median plastron length of females was 121 mm (range 76–175) and that for males 100 mm. (range 79–128); only two male terrapins equalled or exceeded the minimum legal size limit of 127 mm. Few captured terrapins were drowned when crab pots were checked daily, and it is estimated that capture mortality amounted to 10%. Terrapin catch per baited crab pot averaged 0.16 daily in April and May. Incidental terrapin capture by 743 commercial crabbers (fiscal year 1982 numbers) in South Carolina during April and May was estimated at 2,853 daily, and mortality was estimated at 285. These estimates are exclusive of mortalities resulting from lost pots. The impact of crabbing activities is believed to pose no threat to the terrapin population at current levels of commercial terrapin harvest. Because female terrapins mature at the minimum legal size, no segment of the egg laying population is protected except seasonally. If direct harvest of terrapins ever approaches that of the early twentieth century, then it is recommended that legal size limits be changed to protect a segment of the mature female population.     

The Scale of VGI in Map Production: A Perspective on European National Mapping Agencies

The perspective of European National Mapping Agencies (NMA) on the role of citizen sensing in map production was explored. The NMAs varied greatly in their engagement with the community generating volunteered geographic information (VGI) and in their future plans. From an assessment of NMA standard practices, it was evident that much VGI was acquired with a positional accuracy that, while less than that typically acquired by NMAs, actually exceeded the requirements of the nominal data capture scale used by most NMAs. Opportunities for VGI use in map revision and updating were evident, especially for agencies that use a continuous rather than cyclical updating policy. Some NMAs had also developed systems to engage with citizen sensors and examples are discussed. Only rarely was VGI used to collect data on features beyond the standard set used by the NMAs. The potential role of citizen sensing and so its current scale of use by NMAs is limited by a series of concerns, notably relating to issues of data quality, the nature and motivation of the contributors, legal issues, the sustainability of data source, and employment fears of NMA staff. Possible priorities for future research and development are identified to help ensure that the potential of VGI in mapping is realized.     

A note on the useable dynamic range of accelerographs recording translation

Since the late 1970s, the dynamic range and resolution of strong motion digital recorders have leaped from 65 to 135 dB, opening new possibilities for advanced data processing and interpretation. One of these new possibilities is the calculation of permanent displacement of the ground or of structures, associated with faulting or with non-linear response. Proposals on how permanent displacements could be recovered from recorded strong motion have been published since 1976. The analysis in this paper concludes that permanent displacements of the ground and of structures in the near-field can be calculated provided all six components of strong motion (three translations and three rotations) have been recorded, and the records are corrected for transducer rotation, misalignment and cross-axis sensitivity.