A continuous multi-millennial record of surficial bivalve mollusk shells from the São Paulo Bight,Brazilian shelf

To evaluate the potential of using surficial shell accumulations for paleoenvironmental studies, an extensive time series of individually dated specimens of the marine infaunal bivalve mollusk Semele casali was assembled using amino acid racemization (AAR) ratios (n = 270) calibrated against radiocarbon ages (n = 32). The shells were collected from surface sediments at multiple sites across a sediment-starved shelf in the shallow sub-tropical São Paulo Bight (São Paulo State, Brazil). The resulting ¹⁴C-calibrated AAR time series, one of the largest AAR datasets compiled to date, ranges from modern to 10,307 cal yr BP, is right skewed, and represents a remarkably complete time series: the completeness of the Holocene record is 66% at 250-yr binning resolution and 81% at 500-yr binning resolution. Extensive time-averaging is observed for all sites across the sampled bathymetric range indicating long water depth-invariant survival of carbonate shells at the sediment surface with low net sedimentation rates. Benthic organisms collected from active depositional surfaces can provide multi-millennial time series of biomineral records and serve as a source of geochemical proxy data for reconstructing environmental and climatic trends throughout the Holocene at centennial resolution. Surface sediments can contain time-rich shell accumulations that record the entire Holocene, not just the present.     

Oxygen isotope composition of annually banded modern and mid-Holocene travertine and evidence of paleomonsoon floods, Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA

Holocene and modern travertine formed in spring-fed Havasu Creek of the Grand Canyon, Arizona, was studied to determine the factors governing its oxygen-isotope composition. Analysis of substrate-grown travertine indicates that calculated calcite-formation temperatures compare favorably with measured water temperatures, and include silt-rich laminae deposited by monsoon-driven floods. Ancient spring-pool travertine is dated by U-series at 7380 ± 110 yr and consists of 14 travertine-silt couplets of probable annual deposition. One hundred eighty high-resolution δ¹⁸O analyses of this mid-Holocene sample average −11.0‰ PDB. The average value for modern travertine is 0.5‰ lower, perhaps because mid-Holocene temperature was higher or there was proportionally greater summer recharge. δ¹⁸O cyclicity in the mid-Holocene travertine has average amplitude of 1.9 ± 0.5‰ PDB, slightly less than the inferred modern-day annual temperature range of Havasu Creek. The annual temperature range might have been reduced during the 14-yr interval compared to present, although other non-temperature factors could account for the muted annual variation. Silt-rich laminae within isotopically lower calcite in the modern and mid-Holocene travertine verifies the seasonal resolution of both samples, and suggests that similar temperature-precipitation conditions, as well as monsoon-generated summer floods, prevailed in the mid-Holocene as they do throughout the Grand Canyon region today.     

IMAGES OF MAPS: A ROTATION EXPERIMENT*

Theories which explain mental imagery are discussed and are related to cognitive maps. An experiment was conducted to illustrate that people can code information about maps as visual images and use map images for a map-reading task. Subjects were shown maps which were rotated at various angles from north-at-the-top. The time needed to decide if a map was a correct or mirror representation was recorded. The results support the notion that people did this task by forming and rotating map images.     

The generation of vertical thermospheric winds and gravity waves at auroral latitudes—I. Observations of vertical winds

Observations of vertical and horizontal thermospheric winds, using the OI (3P-1D) 630 nm emission line, by ground-based Fabry-Perot interferometers in Northern Scandinavia and in Svalbard (Spitzbergen) have identified sources of strong vertical winds in the high latitude thermosphere. Observations from Svalbard (78.2N 15.6E) indicate a systematic diurnal pattern of strong downward winds in the period 06.00 U.T. to about 18.00 U.T., with strong upward winds between 20.00 U.T. and 05.00 U.T. Typical velocities of 30 m s^?1 downward and 50 m s^?1 upward occur, and there is day to day variability in the magnitude (30–80 m s^?1) and phase (+/- 3 h) in the basically diurnal variation. Strong and persistent downward winds may also occur for periods of several hours in the afternoon and evening parts of the auroral oval, associated with the eastward auroral electrojet (northward electric fields and westward ion drifts and winds), during periods of strong geomagnetic disturbances. Average downward values of 30–50 m s^?1 have been observed for periods of 4–6 h at times of large and long-lasting positive bay disturbances in this region. It would appear that the strong vertical winds of the polar cap and disturbed dusk auroral oval are not in the main associated with propagating wave-like features of the wind field. A further identified source is strongly time-dependent and generates very rapid upward vertical motions for periods of 15–30 min as a result of intense local heating in the magnetic midnight region of the auroral oval during the expansion phase of geomagnetic disturbances, and accompanying intense magnetic and auroral disturbances. In the last events, the height-integrated vertical wind (associated with a mean altitude of about 240 km) may exceed 100–150 m s^?1. These disturbances also invariably cause major time-dependent changes of the horizontal wind field with, for example, horizontal wind changes exceeding 500 m s^?1 within 30 min. The changes of vertical winds and the horizontal wind field are highly correlated, and respond directly to the local geomagnetic energy input. In contrast to the behaviour observed in the polar cap or in the disturbed afternoon auroral oval, the ‘expansion phase’ source, which corresponds to the classical ‘auroral substorm’, generates strong time-dependent wind features which may propagate globally. This source thus directly generates one class of thermospheric gravity waves. In this first paper we will consider the experimental evidence for vertical winds. In a second paper we will use a three-dimensional time-dependent model to identify the respective roles of geomagnetic energy and momentum in the creation of both classes of vertical wind sources, and consider their propagation and effects on global thermospheric dynamics.     

Cassini observations of Io's visible aurorae

More than 500 images of Io in eclipse were acquired by the Cassini spacecraft in late 2000 and early 2001 as it passed through the jovian system en route to Saturn (Porco et al., 2003, Science 299, 1541-1547). Io's bright equatorial glows were detected in Cassini's near-ultraviolet filters, supporting the interpretation that the visible emissions are predominantly due to molecular SO₂. Detailed comparisons of laboratory SO₂ spectra with the Cassini observations indicate that a mixture of gases contribute to the equatorial emissions. Potassium is suggested by new detections of the equatorial glows at near-infrared wavelengths from 730 to 800 nm. Neutral atomic oxygen and sodium are required to explain the brightness of the glows at visible wavelengths. The molecule S₂ is postulated to emit most of the glow intensity in the wavelength interval from 390 to 500 nm. The locations of the visible emissions vary in response to the changing orientation of the external magnetic field, tracking the tangent points of the jovian magnetic field lines. Limb glows distinct from the equatorial emissions were observed at visible to near-infrared wavelengths from 500 to 850 nm, indicating that atomic O, Na, and K are distributed across Io's surface. Stratification of the atmosphere is demonstrated by differences in the altitudes of emissions at various wavelengths: SO₂ emissions are confined to a region close to Io's surface, whereas neutral oxygen emissions are seen at altitudes that reach up to 900 km, or half the radius of the satellite. Pre-egress brightening demonstrates that light scattered into Jupiter's shadow by gases or aerosols in the giant planet's upper atmosphere contaminates images of Io taken within 13 minutes of entry into or emergence from Jupiter's umbra. Although partial atmospheric collapse is suggested by the longer timescale for post-ingress dimming than pre-egress brightening, Io's atmosphere must be substantially supported by volcanism to retain auroral emissions throughout the duration of eclipse.     

Basic-Level Geographic Categories*

As we experience places, we learn about those places and generalize information into more abstract geographic categories. Rosch's basic-level theory argues that information known about objects is stored in our memories in a three-layered hierarchy. Data that could be used to test this theory in a geographic context was generated by having subjects make lists of activities, characteristics, and parts associated with 11 familiar geographic categories. An analysis of the distribution of information among the geographic categories confirmed two basic predictions of Rosch's theory. Significantly more information was stored in the basic-level geographic categories country, region, state, city, and neighborhood than in the superordinate category place. Significantly more information was not stored in subordinate categories home country, home region, home state, home city, and home neighborhood. The results suggest that geographic information is efficiently stored in memory so that much of what we know about geographic space is stored in basic-level categories that are both distinctive and informative.     

Late Pleistocene-Holocene Paleoceanography and Ventilation of the Gulf of California

Sediment cores collected in 1990 from the Gulf of California have been studied using stable isotope and radiocarbon techniques to reconstruct the climate and ventilation histories since the last glacial maximum. Benthic foraminiferal δ¹⁸O from core tops in a water depth range of 145 to 1442 m increases by about 2% with increasing depth. This is consistent with a composite temperature profile constructed from several hydrocasts in the various gulf basins. However, the δ¹⁸O water/salinity relationship is not sufficiently linear in gulf locations or in nearby open Pacific Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) stations to be useful in solving paleotemperature equations. Of the most common benthic foraminifera, only Planulina ariminensis has δ¹³C that is consistent with the measured δ¹³C of ΣCO₂. Several cores in the depth range 500 to 900 m have the laminated Holocene and Bolling/Allerod sediments, and the nonlaminated glacial age and Younger Dryas sediments that are typical of the gulf and other locations such as Santa Barbara Basin. The best of those, Jumbo Piston Core (JPC) 56 from 818 m water depth on the western margin of Guaymas Basin, was sampled for intensive study. Oxygen isotope ratios in benthic and planktonic foraminifera show little evidence for deglacial temperature oscillations. Carbon isotope ratios are generally lower during warm epochs, but the most striking result is strongly lowered benthic and planktonic δ¹³C about 9500 years ago. This may reflect water column oxidation of locally released methane. Neither benthic δ¹³C in depth section nor paired benthic and planktonic ¹⁴C data in JPC56 are consistent with increased intermediate water ventilation during the glacial maximum and Younger Dryas. Likewise, ¹⁴C data from 5 pairs of foraminifera from the Okhotsk Sea fail to support better ventilation in that basin during the last glacial maximum. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The radio galaxy Centaurus B

Centaurus B (PKS B1343−601) is one of the brightest and closest radio galaxies, with flux density ∼250 Jy at 408 MHz and redshift 0.01215, but it has not been studied much because of its position (i) close to the Galactic plane (it is also known as G309.6+1.7 and Kes 19) and (ii) in the southern sky. It has recently been suggested as the centre of a highly obscured cluster behind the Galactic plane. We present radio observations made with the Australia Telescope Compact Array and Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope to study the jets and lobes. The total intensity and polarization radio images of the FR I jets are used to determine the jet brightness and width variations, magnetic field structure and fractional polarization. The equipartition pressure calculated along the jets declines rapidly over the first 1 arcmin from the galaxy reaching a constant pressure of 10⁻¹³  h ^−4/7 Pa in the lobes blown in the intracluster medium.     

Rock–support interaction analysis based on numerical modelling

The use of yield in supports to control the final loading that develops upon a support system has been one of the most important deformation control techniques used by tunnelling engineers, both historically and currently. Successful use of this approach requires a thorough understanding of the process of rock–support interaction as it is an approach that can fail dramatically if incorrectly applied. There is a fine line between the yield support technique improving the conditions, and the approach resulting in the development of a large area of failed rock, which could ultimately be detrimental. The relationship between the support action and the rock has historically been studied using analytical approaches with the application of significant simplifying assumptions.This paper presents a new approach, where a state-of-the-art numerical model is run repeatedly to develop rock–support interaction curves. This has the advantage of allowing more realistic tunnel geometry, stress states and ground conditions to be simulated. It does, however, use the familiar output form of the relatively simple rock–support interaction curve as opposed to complex and voluminous graphics. Its disadvantage lies in the considerable number of computer runs required to develop the full solutions. Computer software has, however, been written to automate much of this process using a programming language within the modelling package.The analysis approach has been further improved by plotting not one rock–support interaction curve but a whole family of curves representing variations in the rock mass quality of the assumed ground, since this is the most variable of the input parameters for most tunnelling situations. This form of output allows engineers to study the practical range of yield they may require for their rock conditions and also to define at what rock mass quality they can expect the yielding approach to cease to be an effective strategy. This new approach has been presented on a test case history with idealized rock mass properties to illustrate the approach. However, it is an approach that can be specially tailored to any set of rock conditions, tunnel geometry or stress.     

Microstructural analysis of faulting in quartzite,Assynt, NW Scotland: Implications for fault zone evolution

Macroscopic fracture arrays, microstructures and interpreted deformation mechanisms are used to assess the development of a minor reverse fault (backthrust) in quartzite from the Moine Thrust Zone, Assynt, NW Scotland. Fracturing dominates the faulting via the progression: intragranular extension microcracks; transgranular, cataclasite absent extension fractures; through-going, cataclasite filled shear microfaults, within which fracturing and particulate flow operate. However, both diffusive mass transfer (DMT) and intracrystalline plasticity (low temperature plasticity, LTP) processes also contribute to the fault zone deformation and lead to distinct associations of deformation mechanisms (e.g., DMT-fracture and LTP-fracture or low-temperature ductile fracture, LTDF). Over a large range of scales the fault zone consists of blocks of relatively intact rock separated by narrow zones of intense deformation where fracture processes dominate. The populations of fragments/blocks of different sizes in the fault zone have a power-law relationship which is related to the dimension of the fault zone. These observations are used to develop a general model for fault zone evolution based on the distribution of deformation features as a function of either time or space. A systematic variation in the deformation rate: time histories is recognised, associated with different positions within the fault zone. Thus, the fault zone preserves elements of the birth, life and death sequences associated with the displacement history and strain accommodation.Dedicated to the memory of Will Ramsbotham (1967–93).