What processes at mid-ocean ridges tell us about volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits

Episodic seafloor spreading, ridge topography, and fault movement at ridges find (more extreme) analogs in the arc and back-arc setting where the volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits that we mine today were formed. The factors affecting sulfide accumulation efficiency and the extent to which sulfides are concentrated spatially are the same in both settings, however. The processes occurring at mid-ocean ridges therefore provide a useful insight into those producing VMS deposits in arcs and back-arcs. The critical observation investigated here is that all the heat introduced by seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges is carried out of the crust within a few hundred meters of the ridge axis by ??350°C hydrothermal fluids. The high-temperature ridge hydrothermal systems are tied to the presence of magma at the ridge axis and greatly reduce the size and control the shape of axial magma intrusions. The amount of heat introduced to each square kilometer of ocean crust during its formation can be calculated, and its removal by high-temperature convection allows calculation of the total base metal endowment of the ocean basins. Using reasonable metal deposition efficiencies, we conclude that the ocean floor is a giant VMS district with metal resources >600 times the total known VMS reserves on land and a copper resource which would last >6,000?years at current production rates.     

Summer Monsoon Rainfall Variability in Central China over the Past 4700 Years and Its Possible Link to Solar Activity

Based on 467 pairs of δ~(18) O and δ~(13) C records and 8 230 Th dates from a stalagmite(BF4) from Xiniu Cave, central China, we present a reconstruction of ~9-yr resolution monsoon rainfall record for the past 4700 years. Our δ~(18) O record shows good coherence with East Asian summer monsoon(EASM) rainfall proxies from adjacent regions during the overlapping intervals, suggesting that δ~(18) O signal in BF4 can be interpreted as a monsoon rainfall proxy. The δ~(13) C variations are related to changes in local processes at the cave site, and regional rainfall and temperature changes.Based on the δ~(18) O record, a series of dry periods can be identified at 4500–4200, 3500–3200, 2800–2500,1900–1600, 1400–1200, 700–500, and 400–200 yr BP, while a series of wet periods can be identified at 4200–3600,2400–2200, 3200–2800, 1100–900, 600–400, and 200–100 yr BP. Power spectrum analysis on our δ~(18) O record reveals significant cycles at ~470 and ~80 yr, coinciding with the typical solar periodic variations. This result suggests that changes in solar activity play a dominant role in driving centennial–decadal monsoon rainfall variation in central China. Due to minor changes in solar irradiance(less than 1.5 W m~(-2)) over the past 4700 years, our record was further compared to the El Ni?o–Southern Oscillation(ENSO) and Pacific Decadal Oscillation(PDO) proxies,confirming that solar forcing on monsoon rainfall changes might be amplified by the ENSO and PDO variations.From 600 to 150 yr BP(the Little Ice Age, LIA), a positive shift of ~2‰ can be revealed in both the δ~(18) O and δ~(13) C records, indicating a cold/dry climatic pattern. By comparing our δ~(18) O and δ~(13) C records with historical documents,we suggest that the climatic deteriorations between 450 and 250 yr BP may have caused serious social unrest at the end of the Ming Dynasty.     

Bank conditions and erosion along selected reservoirs

This analysis was done as the preliminary step in an ongoing study of reservoir bank erosion processes that are active in the northern U.S. The objectives of this analysis were to observe and document bank characteristics, conditions, and changes along reservoirs with eroding banks, to estimate the amounts of historical bank recession and to discuss its possible causes. Aerial photographs were used to observe the historical bank changes and estimate bank recession. Site reconnaissance, discussions with on-site personnel, and published reports were used to evaluate possible relationships between the local erosion and bank conditions. As part of this analysis linear regressions were done to determine if the estimated recession rates correlate with selected bank and climatic conditions and with physical characteristics of the reservoirs. The regression results, however, were generally not useful because they suggested relationships that are contrary to field observations and published results. Dominant bank erosion processes were wind-wave erosion, capillary wave erosion during high-water periods, groundwater-induced sliding, freeze-thaw processes, rain splash and rainwash, and boat waves. However, because of the complexity of the interrelationships of these and many other bank erosion processes and the variability of the processes at and between sites, it would be necessary to make site-specific measurements and observations year-round to evaluate the processes that are active along a particular bank.     

BEACH RIDGES AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY,CENTRAL BAJA CALIFORNIA,MEXICO

Two spatially separated sets of beach ridges were studied in Baja California. Each set contains several well-preserved beach ridges and each is adjacent to an arroyo mouth. Modern beach ridges mark coastal location whereas abandoned paleobeach ridges record coastal change. Paleobeach ridges were dated by absolute and relative techniques for rate-change, chronology, and longshore correlation purposes. With time, shape becomes more planar, foreslope angle is reduced, and there is a progressive tendency for constituent shingle to disintegrate and develop both rinds and surficial roughness. One paleobeach ridge on the lowest emergent terrace was assigned a 1,150 ± 230 yr. B.P. radiocarbon date whereas another beach ridge 18 km farther north has a partially overlapping date. Older but undated beach ridges also exist on the lowest emergent terrace as well as on the highest persistent terrace. Those beach ridges on the highest persistent terrace are highly weathered and Pleistocene in age. All beach ridges have paleogeographic implications and suggest that shoreline orientation has been generally stable although its position has shifted laterally by up to 720m westward in the last 1,150 ± 230 years.     

Summary of the fossil record of pinnipeds of Japan, and comparisons with that from the eastern North Pacific

Abstract The fossil pinniped record of the North Pacific Ocean includes both Phocidae and Otariidae ( sensu lato ), extends from the Late Oligocene to the Late Pleistocene, is taxonomically diverse, and is constantly becoming more complete owing to additional important discoveries. The earliest and most diverse fossil pinnipeds in the North Pacific are otariids, the phocids not appearing until the latest Pliocene. The theoretical center of otariid pinniped evolutionary history has been considered by some to be in the eastern North Pacific. New materials from the western North Pacific, however, including representatives of the subfamilies Enaliarctinae, Imagotariinae, Odobeninae and Otariinae, indicate that pinniped evolutionary patterns were basin-wide phenomena, and that a more complete record undoubtedly would reveal numerous trans-Pacific distributions. This would be expected considering the distributions of living species. The paucity of fossil Phocidae and their absence from pre-Pliocene deposits are consistent with theories that the family primarily evolved outside the North Pacific.     

Effects of Hydrogel Amendment to Different Soils on Plant Available Water and Survival of Trees under Drought Conditions

The effect of super absorbent polyacrylate (SAP) hydrogel amendment to different soil types on plant available water (PAW), evapotranspiration and survival of Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus citriodora, Pinus caribaea, Araucaria cunninghamii, Melia volkensii, Grevillea robusta, Azadirachta indica, Maesopsis eminii and Terminalia superba was investigated. The seedlings were potted in 3 kg size polythene bags filled with sand, loam, silt loam, sandy loam and clay soils, amended at 0 (control), 0.2 and 0.4% w/w hydrogel. The tree seedlings were allowed to grow normally with routine uniform watering in a glass house set up for a period of eight weeks, after which they were subjected to drought conditions by not watering any further. The 0.4% hydrogel amendment significantly (p < 0.05) increased the PAW by a factor of about three in sand, two fold in silt loam and one fold in sandy loam, loam and clay soils compared to the control. Similarly, the addition of either 0.2 or 0.4% hydrogel to the five soil types resulted in prolonged tree survival compared to the controls. Araucaria cunninghammi survived longest at 153 days, while Maesopsis eminii survived least (95 days) in sand amended at 0.4% after subjection to desiccation. Evapotranspiration was reduced in eight of the nine tree species grown in sandy loam, loam, silt loam and clay soils amended at 0.4% hydrogel. It is probable that soil amendment with SAP decreased the hydraulic soil conductivity that might reduce plant transpiration and soil evaporation.     

CHANGES IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN METROPOLITAN AREAS *

Different types of farming in metropolitan areas show both negative and positive responses to urban and nonurban forces of change. The variety of impacts has been neglected by most spatial intensity models and land use studies. This study examines census data from 1949 to 1982 in seven major U.S. metropolitan areas for six commodity types to detect regular patterns of changes in sales value, area harvested, number of animals, and intensity of production. Results show large declines in dairy farming, followed by poultry and fruit and nuts; some recent recovery in vegetable crops; and steady increases in both low value field crops and high value horticultural specialties. A trend toward polarization of metropolitan agriculture is indicated. Results also show differences between inner and outer urban fringe areas and a decline in the differential in intensity of production between metropolitan and non-metropolitan agriculture.     

Aspects of the population dynamics of the polychaeteSabellaria vulgaris Verrill,in the Delaware Bay

Aspects of the population dynamics of the polychaeteSabellaria vulgaris Verrill 1874 were studied by observing the temporal occurrence of larvae in the plankton of Delaware Bay. Vertical plankton samples were collected monthly from July 1970 to October 1971. Four 25-hour plankton studies were conducted within this time period, and on one occasion samples were collected on a transect across the mouth of the bay.Sabellaria vulgaris larvae were present in the bay only from mid-April through October. July (1970) and August (1971) 25-hour plankton studies showed larvae present in the water column at virtually all times of the day and night. Horizontal dispersion of larvae in the plankton was clearly aggregated. However, correlation of larval presence, absence or abundance with the measured physical factors in the estuary was not apparent except on a seasonal scale. Six developmental stages were defined based upon observation of laboratory-reared larvae. Young larvae appeared in the plankton on numerous occasions, indicating that spawning occurred repeatedly during the April–October time period in Delaware Bay. Relative to other habitats within the geographic range ofS. vulgaris, Delaware Bay is a particularly well-suited environment for the construction of massive colonies by the species. Adults living in large aggregates would exhibit greater fitness because of the higher probability of eggs being fertilized. Indications are that a portion of the larvae produced in the Bay are retained in the estuary and undergo settlement there. Delaware Bay may be a population center for the species. A comparison of reproductive phenomena among sabellariid species is presented. It is apparent that the species,S. vulgaris, consists of several physiologically distinct populations, and that this is true of certain other sabellariid species as well.     

The ionospheric impact of the October 2003 storm event on Wide Area Augmentation System

The United States Federal Aviation Administrations (FAA) Wide-Area Augmentation System (WAAS) for civil aircraft navigation is focused primarily on the Conterminous United States (CONUS). Other Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) include the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) and the Japanese Multi-transport Satellite-based Augmentation System (MSAS). Navigation using WAAS requires accurate calibration of ionospheric delays. To provide delay corrections for single frequency global positioning system (GPS) users, the wide-area differential GPS systems depend upon accurate determination of ionospheric total electron content (TEC) along radio links. Dual-frequency transmissions from GPS satellites have been used for many years to measure and map ionospheric TEC on regional and global scales. The October 2003 solar-terrestrial events are significant not only for their dramatic scale, but also for their unique phasing of solar irradiance and geomagnetic events. During 28 October, the solar X-ray and EUV irradiances were exceptionally high while the geomagnetic activity was relatively normal. Conversely, 29–31 October was geomagnetically active while solar irradiances were relatively low. These events had the most severe impact in recent history on the CONUS region and therefore had a significant effect on the WAAS performance. To help better understand the event and its impact on WAAS, we examine in detail the WAAS reference site (WRS) data consisting of triple redundant dual-frequency GPS receivers at 25 different locations within the US. To provide ground-truth, we take advantage of the three co-located GPS receivers at each WAAS reference site. To generate ground-truth and calibrate GPS receiver and transmitter inter-frequency biases, we process the GPS data using the Global Ionospheric Mapping (GIM) software developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. This software allows us to compute calibrated high resolution observations of TEC. We found ionospheric range delays up to 35 m for the day-time CONUS during quiet conditions and up to 100 m during storm time conditions. For a quiet day, we obtained WAAS planar fit slant residuals less than 2 m (0.4 m root mean square (RMS)) and less than 25 m (3.4 m RMS) for the storm day. We also investigated ionospheric gradients, averaged over distances of a few hundred kilometers. The gradients were no larger than 0.5 m over 100 km for a quiet day. For the storm day, we found gradients at the 4 m level over 100 km. Similar level gradients are typically observed in the low-latitude region for quiet or storm conditions.     

Accretionary rims on inclusions in the Allende meteorite

Many inclusions in Allende, particularly those with irregular shapes, are surrounded by a sequence of thin layers which differ from one another in texture, mineralogy and mineral-chemistry. The layer underlying all others contains either: IA, pyroxene needles + olivine + clumps of hedenbergite and andradite; IB, olivine doughnuts; or IC, rectangular olivine crystals. The next layer outward, II, contains tiny (<5 μm) olivine plates and Layer III large (5–10 μm) olivine laths. The final layer, IV, occurs as clumps of andradite + hedenbergite surrounded by magnesium-rich pyroxene needles. It separates Layer III from the Allende matrix which is more poorly sorted and more sulfide-rich than Layer III. Nepheline and iron sulfide are common constituents of most layers, the latter being particularly fine-grained and abundant in Layer II. Although not every layer is present on every inclusion, the sequence of layers is constant. Evidence that the rims are accretionary aggregates includes the presence of highly disequilibrium mineral assemblages and the fact that they are highly porous masses consisting of many euhedral crystals with few intergrowths. In addition, the layers are thickest in topographic hollows on the surfaces of inclusions and the inner layers are absent or discontinuous beyond such irregularities, suggesting that the probability of accretion of crystals was low initially, except in pockets, and became greater later, after a soft cushion of accreted condensate crystals had already formed. Separation of assemblages of different mineralogy, mineral-chemistry and texture into different rim layers seems best explained by nebular models in which long, slow cooling histories allow differentiation during condensation by grain/gas separation processes.