Influence of m-cresol purple indicator additions on the pH of seawater samples: correction factors evaluated from a chemical speciation model

The perturbation of the indicator m-cresol purple on the pH in seawater is illustrated in diagrams, representing measurements in 1-cm and 5-cm cells. The diagrams apply to a measured pH interval of 7.4–8.4 using a 2-mM stock solution of m-cresol purple sodium salt dissolved in seawater. The magnitude of the perturbation is described as correction values, i.e., the change in seawater pH caused by the indicator. The diagrams are based on calculations made by using the equilibrium speciation programme, MARINHALT. From these calculations, and least squares fitting methods, pH correction values are described in terms of the pH difference between each seawater sample and the pH of an indicator stock solution. Calculations are performed for a typical high latitude water and a north Pacific deep water. Diagrams are presented for a salinity of 35 and a temperature of 15°C. Responses to salinities between 32 and 36 and temperatures 15–25°C are illustrated as well. A ±0.05 pH difference between a seawater sample and an indicator stock solution gives a correction of less than 0.001 pH unit for a 1-cm cell. For a 5-cm cell, pH differences between the indicator stock solution and a seawater sample as large as ±0.3 cause corrections smaller than ±0.001 pH unit. Calculations demonstrate that the five-fold lower indicator concentration used with 5-cm cells decreases the perturbation effect by approximately a factor of five relative to 1-cm cells.     

An optimization scheme of instrumental soil water storage determination

An optimization scheme is considered of the method of instrumental determination of soil moisture used within the Roshydromet system. The scheme enables to reduce the volume of instrumental operations by 2.5–3 times using the empirical statistical dependences between the water content in different layers of the soil profile. Efficiency of the filtration of outliers in the data sample is studied on the basis of the analysis of regression residuals when deriving the regression equations.     

A Holocene record of climate change,fire ecology and human activity from montane Flat Top Bog,Maui

A sediment core from a high-elevation bog on Maui in the Hawaiian Islands contains evidence for drier conditions between 9.4–5.8 kyr BP, followed by a wetter interval between 5.8–2.2 kyr BP, and a variable late Holocene. These precipitation changes may be a reflection of vertical displacements of the upper boundary of the mid-Pacific Trade Wind Inversion (TWI) cloud layer. Fires, probably volcanically ignited, occurred in the forests prior to human arrival. Polynesian activity in this high-elevation, remote site was apparently limited, with no pollen, charcoal, or sedimentological evidence for local anthropogenic disturbance. After European contact, grass fires increased and introduced plant species invaded the site. Values for Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in sediments throughout the Holocene indicate low trace-metal deposition from atmospheric particulates at the site, even in the twentieth century.This paper is one of a series of papers guest edited by Dr. Mark Brenner on tropical paleolimnology     

Geochemical processes in a Mediterranean Lake: a high-resolution study of the last 4,000 years in Zoñar Lake,southern Spain

High-resolution geochemical analysis of a 6-m-long sediment core from Zoñar Lake, southern Spain, provides a detailed characterization of major changes in lake and watershed processes during the last 4,000 years. Geochemical variables were used as paleolimnological indicators and complement Zoñar Lakes’s paleoenvironmental reconstruction based on sedimentological and biological proxies, which define periods of increasing allochthonous input to the lake and periods of dominant autochthonous sedimentation. Chemical ratios identify periods of endogenic carbonate formation (higher Ca/Al, Sr/Al and Ba/Al ratios), evaporite precipitation (higher S/Al, Sr/Al ratios), and anoxic conditions (higher Mo/Al, U/Th ratios and Eu anomaly). Higher productivity is marked by elevated organic carbon content and carbonate precipitation (Mg/Ca). Hydrological reconstruction for Zoñar Lake was based on sedimentological, mineralogical and biological proxies, and shows that lower lake levels are characterized by Sr-rich sediments (a brackish lake with aragonite) and S-rich sediments (a saline lake with gypsum), while higher lake levels are characterized by sediments enriched in elements associated with alumino-silicates (Al, K, Ti, Fe, trace and rare earth elements), reflecting fresher conditions. Geochemical indicators also mark periods of higher detrital input to the lake related to human activity in the watershed: (1) during the Iberian Roman Humid Period (650 BC–AD 300), around the onset of the Little Ice Age (AD 1400), during the relatively drier Post-Roman and Middle Ages (AD 800–1400), and over the last 50 years, due to mechanized farming practices. Heavy metal enrichment in the sediments (Cu and Ni) suggests intensification of human activities during the Iberian Roman Period, and the use of fertilizers during the last 50 years.     

Relationships between Holocene sea-level variations,trophic development,and climatic change in Negra Lagoon,Southern Uruguay

Paleolimnological data are presented on trophic development, climatic change and sea level variations in Negra Lagoon, a 142 km² coastal lagoon in southern Uruguay. Using a sediment core that extended to the early Holocene, analyses of organic matter, carbonate, diatoms and opal phytoliths allowed us to track changes in trophic state and paleosalinity levels, which were closely related to Holocene sea level variation, temperature and humidity. Diatom Association Zones (DAZ) corresponding to transgressive events were dominated by marine/brackish taxa and relatively low organic matter values, while those DAZ corresponding to regressive events showed increases in brackish/freshwater diatoms and organic matter. Opal Phytoliths Association Zones (OPAZ) also were identified, temperature and humidity indices were calculated, and climatic trends were inferred. During the middle Holocene (i.e., ~5000–4000 yr BP), cool–dry climatic conditions were established. After ~4000 yr BP, a transition from cool to warm–humid conditions was observed, but fully warm humid conditions established only after ~1700 yr BP. Such climatic amelioration led to increases in trophic state.     

Further investigations of the fog in the photo-electric condensation nucleus counter

Summary The effect on extinction of isothermal distillation, shrinking of the droplets by evaporation without recondensation of the liberated water vapour, coagulation and differential settling of the fog droplets which take place in the fog of a photo-electric nucleus counter and which can produce a small additional extinction («creep») in the first seconds after its formation, were numerically examined. The relative contribution of each process to the total creep observed is assessed. It is found that isothermal distillation can produce amounts of creep (up to 1.70%) which exceed considerably those caused by evaporation or coagulation. The results of these computations explain the occurrence of creep with concentrations greater than approx. 25 000 nuclei/cm³ in fog-tubes of 3.85 cm air-column diameter.That the disappearance of creep in fog-tubes of diameters 2.5 cm and less is due to the accelerated heat-flow from the walls of the narrow fog-tube was previously proved by reducing appropriately the diameter of the light pencil through the fog. In order to meet the objection that by restricting the cross section of the light pencil the fine structure of the fog comes into play, the increase in the travel time of the heat from the walls was achieved this time by using a photo-electric counter with a fog-tube of 8 cm diameter and a light beam of 2.8 cm diameter as in the «Standard Counter 1946». As expected, creep was found in every single measurement up to readings of 53%. Typical examples of the galvanometer pointer-movement and photographic records of the extinction during fog formation in such a wide fog-tube for readings between approx. 10 and 76% are given and their peculiarities discussed.The extinction over the range from 175 000 to 20 000 nuclei/cm³ was also measured with a red and a blue monochromatic interference filter and the results contrasted against the computed extinctions for these two wave lengths. It was ascertained that for the same number of nuclei the extinction for red light is in general larger than that for blue; the difference between the observed extinctions varies considerably, becoming zero or even negative. The most striking feature, however, is the different course of the extinction for the two wave lengths as a function of the number or size of the droplets.The size of the fog droplets in the counter was deduced from the extinction measurements for these two wave lengths and by collecting the falling droplets on coated slides. The radius of the droplets obtained by the optical method varies from 1.81 to 3.19 when the extinction decreases from 86 to 56%. The radius of the droplets as deduced from gelatine coated slides dyed with Naphtol Green B increases from 1.44 at 67.4% extinction (42 400 nuclei/cm³) to 6.30 at 15.6% (858 nuclei/cm³).

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Zusammenfassung Der Einflus der isothermalen Destillation, des Einschrumpfens der Tröpfchen durch Verdunstung ohne Wiederkondensation des freiwerdenden Wasserdampfes, des Zusammenfliessens und Absetzens der Nebeltröpfchen auf die Extinktion, welche im Nebel des photo-elektrischen Kernzählers stattfinden und die in den ersten Sekunden nach seiner Bildung eine kleine zusätzliche Extinktion (im folgenden Kriechen genannt) erzeugen können, wurde numerisch geprüft. Der entsprechende Beitrag jedes einzelnen der oben genannten Prozesse zum Gesamtbetrag des beobachteten Kriechens wurde abgeschätzt. Es wurde gefunden, dass isothermale Destillation zusätzliche Extinktions-Beträge (bis zu 1.70%) erzeugen kann, welche jene durch Verdunstung oder Zusammenfliessen der Tröpfchen verursachten, beträchtlich übersteigen. Die Resultate dieser Berechnungen erklären das Auftreten des Kriechens bei Konzentrationen grösser als ca. 25 000 Kerne per cm³ in Nebelrohren von 3.85 cm Luftsäulen-Durchmesser.Dass das Verschwinden des Kriechens in Nebelrohren mit einem Durchmesser von 2.5 cm und weniger dem beschleunigten Wärmefluss von den Wänden des engen Nebelrohres zuzuschreiben ist, wurde früher durch eine entsprechende Verengung des Lichtbündels, welches zur Durchleuchtung des Nebels verwendet wird, bewiesen. Um dem Einwand zu begegnen, dass bei so starker Verkleinerung des Querschnittes des Lichtbündels, wie sie benützt wurde, schon die Feinstruktur des Nebels eine Rolle spielt, wurde diesmal die Verlängerung der Laufzeit der Wärme von den Wänden durch Erweiterung des Nebelrohres auf 8 cm Durchmesser erzielt, während der Durchmesser des Lichtbündels mit 2.8 cm — wie im «Standard photo-elektrischen Kernzähler 1946» — unverändert belassen wurde. Entsprechend den Erwartungen wurde bei jeder einzelnen Messung bis zu Lesungen von 53% Kriechen festgestellt. Typische Beispiele der Bewegung des Galvanometer-Zeigers und photographische Aufzeichnungen der Extinktion während der Nebelbildung in einem solchen weiten Nebelrohr werden für Lesungen zsischen ca. 10 und 76% gegeben und ihre Eigentümlichkeiten besprochen.Die Extinktion für Konzentrationen zwischen 175 000 und 20 000 Kernen per cm³ wurde auch mit einem roten und blauen Interferenz-Filter gemessen und die Resultate den für diese zwei Wellenlängen berechneten Extinktionen gegenübergestellt. Es wurde festgestellt, dass bei der gleichen Kernzahl die Extinktion für rotes Licht im allgemeinen grösser ist als jene für blaues; die Differenz zwischen den beobachteten Extinktionen schwankt beträchtlich, wird null oder sogar negativ. Am auffallendsten ist jedoch der verschiedene Verlauf der Extinktion für die zwei Wellenlängen als Funktion der Zahl oder Grösse der Tröpfchen.Die Grösse der Nebeltröpfchen im Nebelrohr des photo-elektrischen Kernzählers wurde aus den Extinktions-Messungen in diesen zwei Wellenlängen und durch Auffangen der fallenden Tröpfchen auf Mikroskop-Objektträgern und Deckgläsern, welche mit gefärbter Gelatine überzogen waren, bestimmt. Der Radius der Tröpfchen, welcher mittels der optischen Methode ermittelt wurde, liegt zwischen 1.81 und 3.19 , wenn die Extinktion von 86 auf 56% abnimmt.Der Tröpfchenradius, wie er aus den Flecken auf den Mikroskopgläschen, deren Gelatineüberzug mit Naphtol Grün B eingefärbt war, bestimmt wurde, wächst von 1.44 bei 67.4% Extinktion (42 400 Kerne per cm³) auf 6.30 bei 15.6% (858 Kerne per cm³).

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The research reported in this article has been sponsored and supported in part by the Geophysics Research Directorate of the Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Air Research and Development Command, United States Air Force, under Contract AF 61(052)-26, through the European Office, ARDC in Brussels.     

Performance‐based design using structural optimization

A new methodology for seismic design is proposed based on structural optimization with performance‐based constraints. Performance‐based criteria are introduced for the seismic design of new buildings. These criteria are derived from the National Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings (Reference [19], Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), ‘NHERP Guidelines for seismic rehabilitation of buildings’, Report Nos 273 and 274, Washington, DC, 1997) for retrofitting existing structures. The proposed design methodology takes into account the non‐linear behaviour of the structure. The goal is to incorporate in the design the actual performance levels of the structure, i.e. how much reserve capacity the structure has in an earthquake of a given magnitude. The optimal design of the structure minimizes the structural cost subjected to performance constraints on plastic rotations of beams and columns, as well as behavioural constraints for reinforced concrete frames. Uncertainties in the structural period and in the earthquake excitation are taken into account using convex models. The optimization routine incorporates a non‐linear analysis program and the procedure is automated. The proposed methodology leads to a structural design for which the levels of reliability (performance levels) are assumed to be quantifiable. Furthermore, the entire behaviour of the structure well into the non‐linear range is investigated in the design process. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Recent Trends in Geography Education in Louisiana

Geography at elementary and middle schools in Louisiana, USA., remains a social studies strand along with civics, economics, and history, with no state-required geography course at any level. But because schools may require more geography than the state standard, this research examines the extent to which K–12 students are exposed to geography in Louisiana, using an electronic survey and an interview with state department of education officials. Results suggest that geography remains underemphasized, but the 2011 implementation of new social studies standards, the Advanced Placement Human Geography course, and other initiatives offer promise for more geographically literate Louisiana citizens.     

Structure of the inhomogeneities of the fields of temperature,wind, and humidity in the tropical tropopause layer and lower stratosphere over West Africa (Burkina Faso, 2006)

Data are presented on some structure parameters of mesoscale turbulence mechanisms playing a significant role in the troposphere-stratosphere exchange in the tropical tropopause layer and in the lower stratosphere. The data are obtained in the framework of the international aircraft AMMA experiment in Burkina Faso (West Africa) in August 2006.