Topographic signatures of progressive glacial landscape transformation

The Pleistocene glaciations left a distinct topographic footprint in mountain ranges worldwide. The geometric signature of glacial topography has been quantified in various ways, but the temporal development of landscape metrics has not been traced in a landscape evolution model so far. However, such information is needed to interpret the degree of glacial imprint in terms of the integrated signal of temporal and spatial variations in erosion as a function of glacial occupation time. We apply a surface process model for cold-climate conditions to an initially fluvial mountain range. By exploring evolving topographic patterns in model time series, we determine locations where topographic changes reach a maximum and where the initial landscape persists. The signal of glacial erosion, expressed by the overdeepening of valleys and the steepening of valley flanks, develops first at the glacier front and migrates upstream with ongoing glacial erosion. This leads to an increase of mean channel slope and its variance. Above steep flanks and head-walls, however, the observed mean channel slope remains similar to the mean channel slope of the initial fluvial topography. This leads to a characteristic turning point in the channel slope–elevation distribution above the equilibrium line altitude, where a transition from increasing to decreasing channel slope with elevation occurs. We identify this turning point and a high channel slope variance as diagnostic features to quantify glacial imprint. Such features are abundant in glacially imprinted mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Eastern Alps. By analysing differently glaciated parts of the mountain range, we observe a decreasing clarity of this diagnostic morphometric property with decreasing glacial occupation. However, catchments of the unglaciated eastern fringe of the Alps also feature turning points in their channel slope–elevation distributions, but in contrast to the glaciated domain, the variance of channel slope is small at all elevation levels.     

Microbiological processes in banded iron formation deposition

Banded iron formations have been studied for decades, particularly regarding their potential as archives of the Precambrian environment. In spite of this effort, the mechanism of their deposition and, specifically, the role that microbes played in the precipitation of banded iron formation minerals, remains unresolved. Evidence of an anoxic Earth with only localized oxic areas until the Great Oxidation Event ca 2·45 to 2·32 Ga makes the investigation of O₂‐independent mechanisms for banded iron formation deposition relevant. Recent studies have explored the long‐standing proposition that Archean banded iron formations may have been formed, and diagenetically modified, by anaerobic microbial metabolisms. These efforts encompass a wide array of approaches including isotope, ecophysiological and phylogeny studies, molecular and mineral marker analysis, and sedimentological reconstructions. Herein, the current theories of microbial processes in banded iron formation mineral deposition with particular regard to the mechanisms of chemical sedimentation and post‐depositional alteration are described. The main findings of recent years are summarized and compared here, and suggestions are made regarding cross‐disciplinary information still required to constrain the role of the biosphere in banded iron formation deposition.     

Short‐lived radioactivity in the early solar system: The Super‐AGB star hypothesis

Abstract– The composition of the most primitive solar system condensates, such as calcium‐aluminum‐rich inclusions (CAIs) and micron‐sized corundum grains, show that short‐lived radionuclides (SLR), e.g., ²⁶Al, were present in the early solar system. Their abundances require a local or stellar origin, which, however, is far from being understood. We present for the first time the abundances of several SLR up to ⁶⁰Fe predicted from stars with initial mass in the range approximately 7–11 M_⊙. These stars evolve through core H, He, and C burning. After core C burning they go through a “Super”‐asymptotic giant branch (Super‐AGB) phase, with the H and He shells activated alternately, episodic thermal pulses in the He shell, a very hot temperature at the base of the convective envelope (approximately 10⁸ K), and strong stellar winds driving the H‐rich envelope into the surrounding interstellar medium. The final remnants of the evolution of Super‐AGB stars are mostly O–Ne white dwarfs. Our Super‐AGB models produce ²⁶Al/²⁷Al yield ratios approximately 0.02–0.26. These models can account for the canonical value of the ²⁶Al/²⁷Al ratio using dilutions with the solar nebula of the order of 1 part of Super‐AGB mass per several 10² to several 10³ of solar nebula mass, resulting in associated changes in the O‐isotope composition in the range Δ¹⁷O from 3 to 20‰. This is in agreement with observations of the O isotopic ratios in primitive solar system condensates, which do not carry the signature of a stellar polluter. The radionuclides ⁴¹Ca and ⁶⁰Fe are produced by neutron captures in Super‐AGB stars and their meteoritic abundances are also matched by some of our models, depending on the nuclear and stellar physics uncertainties as well as the meteoritic experimental data. We also expect and are currently investigating Super‐AGB production of SLR heavier than iron, such as ¹⁰⁷Pd.     

Outgassing of icy bodies in the Solar System – II: Heat transport in dry,porous surface dust layers

In this work, we present a new model for the heat conductivity of porous dust layers in vacuum, based on an existing solution of the heat transfer equation of single spheres in contact. This model is capable of distinguishing between two different types of dust layers: dust layers composed of single particles (simple model) and dust layers consisting of individual aggregates (complex model). Additionally, we describe laboratory experiments, which were used to measure the heat conductivity of porous dust layers, in order to test the model. We found that the model predictions are in an excellent agreement with the experimental results, if we include radiative heat transport in the model. This implies that radiation plays an important role for the heat transport in porous materials. Furthermore, the influence of this new model on the Hertz factor are demonstrated and the implications of this new model on the modeling of cometary activity are discussed. Finally, the limitations of this new model are critically reviewed.     

Refractory Metal Nuggets – Formation of the first condensates in the Solar Nebula

As gas flowed from the solar accretion disk or Solar Nebula onto the proto-Sun, magnetic pressure gradients in the solar magnetosphere and the inner Solar Nebula provided an environment where some of this infalling flow was diverted to produce a low pressure, high temperature, gaseous, “infall” atmosphere around the inner Solar Nebula. The pressure in this inner disk atmosphere was mainly dependant on the accretion flow rate onto the star. High flow rates implied relatively high pressures, which decreased over time as the accretion rate decreased.In the first hundred thousand years after the formation of the Solar Nebula, accretional flow gas pressures were high enough to create submicron-sized Refractory Metal Nuggets (RMNs) – the precursors to Calcium Aluminum Inclusions (CAIs). Optimal temperatures and pressures for RMN formation may have occurred between 20,000 and 100,000 years after the formation of the Solar Nebula. It is possible that conditions were conducive to RMN/CAI formation over an 80,000 year timescale. The “infall” atmosphere and the condensation of refractory particles within this atmosphere may be observable around the inner disks of other protostellar systems.The interaction of forces from magnetic fields with the radiation pressure from the proto-Sun and the inner solar accretion disk potentially produced an optical-magnetic trap above and below the inner Solar Nebula, which provided a relatively stable environment in which the RMNs/proto-CAIs could form and grow. These RMN formation sites only existed during accretion events from the proto-solar disk onto the proto-Sun. As such, the formation and growth time of a particular RMN was dependent on the timescale of its nascent accretion event.Observational evidence suggests that RMNs were the nucleation particles for CAIs. As a consequence, the observed bimodal distribution of ²⁶Al in CAIs, where some CAIs have ²⁶Al while others do not, is probably due to the injection ²⁶Al during the short CAI formation period, where ²⁶Al was not present when the first CAIs were formed.     

Varnish microlaminations: new insights from focused ion beam preparation

The cross-sectional texture of rock varnish varies considerably with the scale of analysis and technique used to image a sample. Each jump in resolution results in new insight, with the current state-of-the-art resting at the nanoscale. One key to nanoscale analysis involves focused ion beam (FIB) techniques used most frequently in material science and semiconductor failure analysis. FIB preparation remains challenging, however, for samples like rock coatings with heterogeneous density and abundant porosity. A new technique involving multiangle ion thinning and in situ plan-view lift-out facilitated a scanning transmission electron microscopy study of rock varnish from Death Valley. The results reveal variability in lateral continuity of nanometer microlaminae that can be interrupted by post-depositional diagenesis involving leaching of Mn and Fe, and this variability could explain why some of the visual varnish microlaminations (VML) used in paleoclimatic research can sometimes appear discontinuous. Because these breaks result from post-depositional processes, they do not undermine the paleoclimatic interpretations of VML.     

On the distribution of diatoms on cover slips: cause for concern

We investigated the effect of frustule morphology on the distribution of various diatom taxa on microscope cover slips, using an artificial assemblage. Seven diatom morphotypes were processed separately in nitric acid and an eighth morphotype (Chaetoceros muelleri) was processed in Lugol’s. These were mixed into a single assemblage and dried on a cover slip. We then mapped the locations of all 1,664 valves in the debris area, which covered 244.4 mm². The inner half of the debris area (A = 122.2 mm², r ≤ 6.237 mm,), the “Central Region,” contained 1,303 valves (78 % of the total). Each of the eight morphotypes was significantly (p ≤ 0.035) more numerous in the Central Region than in the Marginal Region. In addition, the assemblages in the two Regions were quite distinct: C. muelleri accounted for 19 % of the Central Region diatoms, but 57 % of the Marginal Region ones, whereas Surirella peisonis accounted for 17 and 6 %, respectively. We also considered valve distribution relative to aliquot volume by comparing the number of valves under the proximal 50 μl of the aliquot (r ≤ 4.758 mm) with the number of valves under the distal 50 μl. Four morphotypes were significantly (p < 0.02) more numerous in the Proximal Region. In contrast, valves of C. muelleri were significantly more numerous in the Distal Region (p < 10^?43). Valve distribution may reflect valve morphology, such as spine length and degree of silicification. Also important may be other environmental variables, such as the abundance and size of sediment particles. Although preliminary, these data indicate that some taxa are not distributed randomly on cover slips, especially valves that have long spines, thin walls, or thick walls. Whereas many natural assemblages lack such morphotypes, investigators must be aware of such potential heterogenous distributions when counting.     

A tale of two magmas,Fuego, Guatemala

Fuego volcano in Guatemala erupted in 1974 in a basaltic sub-Plinian event, which has been well documented and studied. In 1999, after a period of quiescence lasting 20 years, Fuego erupted again, this time less violently, but with persistent low-level activity. This study investigates the link between these episodes. Previous melt inclusion studies have shown magma erupted in 1974 to have been a volatile-rich hybrid tapped from a vertically extensive system. By contrast, magma erupted in 1999 and 2003 is similar in composition to that erupted in 1974, but melt inclusions are more evolved. Although melt inclusions from the later period are CO₂ rich (up to ∼1,500 ppm), they have low H₂O concentration (max 1.5 wt.%, compared to ∼6 wt.% in 1974). These melt inclusions have a modified H₂O concentration due to diffusive re-equilibration at shallow pressures. Despite this diffusive exchange, both eruptions show evidence of recent mingling of the same low and higher K melts, one of which was slightly cooler than the other and as a result traversed the amphibole stability field. (²¹⁰Pb/²²⁶Ra) data on selected bulk rock samples from 1974 suggest that whereas the cooler, more evolved end-member may have been degassing since the last major eruption in the 1930s, the warmer end-member intruded at most a decade prior to the 1974 eruption. The two end-members are thus batches of the same magma emplaced shallowly ∼30 years apart during which time the older batch was cooled and differentiated before mixing with the younger influx. The presence of the same two melts in the later eruptions suggests that magma in 1999 and 2003 is partly residual from 1974. The current eruptive activity is clearing the system of this residual magma prior to an expected new magma batch.