William F. Petersen

Ohne Zusammenfassung     

Die Einordnung der Weichseleiszeit in die Strahlungskurve Ton Milankowitsch

Zusammenfassung Bändertone, Osbuckel und Toteiskragen der Diluviallandschaft Norddeutschlands werden auf ihre Brauchbarkeit als Geochronometer untersucht. Es zeigt sich stets, daß nur überraschend kleine Zahlenwerte festzustellen sind. Ein Versuch, die Gesamtdauer der Weichseleiszeit zu errechnen, scheint aussichtsreich, obwohl er nicht exakt durchführbar ist. Es wird dadurch zumindestens bewiesen, daß in der Strahlungskurve vonMilankowitsch lediglich die Klimazacke vor 22 300 Jahren mit der gesamten Weichseleiszeit identifiziert werden könnte.     

Die Auswirkungen der Aufstiegszeitänderung 1957 auf die Inversionsstatistik

Zusammenfassung Es werden die Auswirkungen der Verlegung der Sondenaufstiegszeiten im Jahre 1957 auf die Inversionsstatistik gezeigt: Beim Mitternachts- und beim Mittagsaufstieg gibt es mehr Aufstiege mit mehreren gleichzeitigen Inversionen, deren Schichtdicke jedoch meist geringer ist als bei den 3- und 15-Uhr-Aufstiegen. Die Zahl der Bodeninversionen ist zu Mittag kleiner als am Nachmittag, doch treten um 0 und 12 Uhr mehr Aufstiege mit einer Untergrenze unter 1500 m auf. Änderungen der verbundenen Verteilungen von Schichtdicke, Höhe der Untergrenze, Temperatur-differenz zwischen Ober- und Untergrenze und Temperaturgradient betreffen meist nur einzelne Jahreszeiten.

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Summary The effect of the change of sounding-times in 1957 on the statistics of inversions is shown: The soundings at noon and at midnight contain a larger number of ascents with multiple inversions, the thickness of which, however, is smaller than that of the inversions at 3 or 15 hrs. The number of ground inversions is smaller at noon but there are more inversions with a lower boundary below 1500 m at noon and at midnight. Changes of the joint distributions of thickness, height of the lower boundary, temperature differences between upper and lower boundary and temperature gradients mostly concern single seasons only.

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Résumé On a recherché les repercussions qu'a eu le décalage de l'heure des sondages aérologiques sur la statistique des inversions, décalage intervenu en 1957. Lors de sondages effectués à minuit et à midi, on en dénombre davantage qui présentent plusieurs inversions simultanées. L'épaisseur des couches est cependant en général plus faible que dans le cas de sondages faits à 3 heures et à 15 heures. Le nombre des inversions au sol est plus petit à midi que l'après-midi. Pourtant, il y a plus de sondages à 0 heure et 12 heures dont la base de l'inversion se situe au-dessous de 1500 m d'altitude. Les modifications dans la répartition des épaisseurs de couches, de l'altitude de la base, de la différence de température entre la base et le sommet des inversions, ainsi que du gradient thermique ne concernent en général que des saisons restreintes et bien déterminées.

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Mit 3 Textabbildungen     

Quality Assurance of Hydrocarbon Measurements for the German Tropospheric Research Focus (TFS)

In the German Focus on Tropospheric Research (TFS) independent quality assurance procedures were implemented in order to obtain information on data quality and comparability of the different measurements made in the different field campaigns. This paper describes the results for measurements of hydrocarbons using in-situ gas chromatographictechniques and off line analysis of samples collected in canisters (analysed by two central laboratories CL-1 and CL-2) and samples collected on adsorption tubes. The QA-procedures included comparisons with synthetic standards (prepared by EN 45001 certified laboratories), absolute calibration with a diffusion source, and an instrument/methodology comparison in ambient air. Harmonisation of the ambient measurements was achieved with a complex mixture (NCAR/BERLIOZ) containing 70 commonly observed hydrocarbons at mixing ratios of 0.2 to 10 ppb (mole fraction) in nitrogen, which was calibrated by referencing to hydrocarbon standards of the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST).For the certified synthetic standards, the experienced groups agreed to within ± 20% for most compounds. Much larger discrepancies were observed for the new Airmotec HC2010 instruments due to problems with identification, co-elution and blanks/memory effects. The results in ambient air were similar: Reasonable agreement was found for the results from the experienced groups with well characterised in situ instruments andfor the charcoal tubes, whereas larger discrepancies were observed for the results from new groups and instruments. For the latter, only selected compounds met the data quality objectives (DQO). The canister samples analysed by CL-2 were in good agreement with the reference instrument, whereas large deviations were found for a number of compounds in the analysis of the same canisters by CL-1. The results of the comparison provided the final basis for flagging and harmonising the data from all participants prior to their submission to the TFS central data bank.     

On recent variations of the annual thunderstorm activity in the region of the Alps

Summary Observations of days with thunderstorm at twelve stations in the Alpine and Pre-Alpine region have been used to look for trends and periodicities in the thunderstorm activity in this area. The annual number of days with thunderstorms was represented by negative binomial distributions, then by means of a non-parametric trend test, parts of the series were found in which the numbers of days with thunderstorm were increasing, decreasing or uniform at the various stations. A variance spectrum analysis showed the existence of long-periodic waves and of short-periodic waves superposed on the background red noise or white noise spectrum. Partitioning the series of observations yielded that these periodicities are not stable.     

Thermal stresses in the modern aircraft

Summary It is proposed for practical purposes to measure the severity of the bioclimate in extreme conditions, as encountered in aircraft, by the tolerance time. The author also suggests a more simple classification of the extreme bioclimates, as shown in Table 1. The probable kind of final fate of a human being in this bioclimate is used for its definition.The air friction causes the temperature of a modern fast airplane to rise in a degree that an equilibrium of temperature is no longer secured. The heat capacity of the cabin, of the clothes, and of the men therefore becomes important for avoiding too high temperatures.A new calculation of observed fast changes of temperature in man yields that the peripheral heat barrier of the body depends upon core temperature and not upon skin temperature. In hot environment the production of heat increases much more than has been supposed.As a consequence of recent experiments of the author about the thermal water loss from the skin the diffusion flow of the insensible perspiration can move in both directions, to and from the skin, according to the vapour pressure of the air; it represents simply the lowest value of osmotic diffusion. The diffusion ressstance of the skin is lowest when it is covered with water. Considerable amounts of water are flowing through the skin from water and solutions; amount and direction of these flows depend upon the concentration of the solutions. When the skin is sweating and exposed to the air the diffusion flow increases with sweating and can reach similar amounts. With a very damp air previously excreted sweat water can return back into the body by diffusion.

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Zusammenfassung Für Zwecke der Praxis wird vorgeschlagen, die Härte des Bioklimas unter extremen Bedingungen, wie sie in der Fliegerei auftreten, nach der Toleranzzeit zu bemessen (Fig. 1). Ferner wird angeregt, statt der verwirrenden Fülle extremer Bioklimate eine Einteilung wie in Tabelle 1 zu benützen. Dabei wird die wahrscheinliche Art des Endschicksals eines Menschen in diesem Bioklima für dessen Definition benutzt.Das moderne Schnellflugzeug wird durch Reibung so stark aufgeheizt, daß Temperaturgleichgewicht nicht mehr erreicht wird. Wärmekapazität von Flugzeugzelle, Kleidung und Mensch werden dadurch zu wichtigen Hilfsmitteln zur Vermeidung zu hoher Temperaturen.Eine Neuberechnung beobachteter schneller Temperaturgänge im Menschen ergibt, daß der periphere Wärmewiderstand des Körpers von der Innentemperatur und nicht von der Hauttemperatur abhängt. In heißer Umgebung steigt die Wärmebildung viel mehr an als bisher angenommen.Nach neuen Versuchen des Verf. über den thermischen Hautwasserverlust kann der Diffusionsstrom der insensiblen Perspiration, je nach dem äußeren Dampfdruck, von der Haut weg oder zu ihr hin gerichtet sein; er stellt nur den untersten Wert der osmotischen Diffusion dar. Der geringste Diffusionswiderstand der Haut findet sich bei Wasserbedeckung. Aus Wasser oder Lösungen fließen erhebliche Wassermassen durch die Haut; Größe und Richtung dieser Ströme richten sich nach der Konzentration der Lösungen. Bei schwitzender, der Luft ausgesetzter Haut nimmt der Diffusionsstrom mit dem Schwitzen zu und kann eine ähnliche Größe erreichen. Bei sehr feuchter Luft kann bereits ausgetretenes Schweißwasser wieder zurückdiffundieren.

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Résumé L'auteur propose, à des fins pratiques, d'évaluer la rigueur d'un bioclimat sous des conditions extrêmes comme on les rencontre dans l'aviation, par le temps de tolérance (fig.1). Il suggère en un tableau une subdivision plus simple des bioclimats extrêmes; pour cela il définit ce climat par le sort final probable de l'organisme humain qui s'y trouve exposé.La chaleur de frottement des avions modernes est telle que l'équilibre de température n'est plus atteint. La capacité calorifique de la cabine d'avion, des vêtements et de l'homme deviennent par conséquent des moyens importants d'éviter des températures trop hautes.Un nouveau calcul de fortes variations de température observées dans l'organisme humain montre que la résistence calorifique du corps dépend de sa température interne et non de celle de la peau. La formation de chaleur augmente par forte chaleur extérieure beaucoup plus qu'on ne l'admettait jusqu'ici.D'après de nouvelles recherches de l'auteur sur la perte calorifique en eau de la peau, le courant de diffusion de la perspiration insensible peut être dirigé vers l'extérieur ou vers l'intérieur, selon la pression de vapeur de l'air; il ne représente que la valeur la plus basse de la diffusion osmotique. La plus petite résistance de la peau à la diffusion s'observe lorsque celle-ci est couverte d'eau. Dans l'eau ou dans une solution, des quantités notables d'eau traversent la peau; la direction et l'importance de ces courants dépendent de la concentration des solutions. Lorsque la peau exposée à l'air transpire, le courant de diffusion augmente avec la transpiration et peut atteindre une grandeur semblable. Dans de l'air très humide, l'eau de transpiration expulsée peut rediffuser vers l'intérieur.

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With 3 Figures.

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Lecture given to the Symposium on Frontiers of man controlled flight. Los Angeles, Cal., April 1953. With the permission of the Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles.     

Terrigenous plant wax inputs to the Arabian Sea: Implications for the reconstruction of winds associated with the Indian Monsoon

We have determined the accumulation rates and carbon isotopic compositions (δ¹³C) of long-chain (C₂₄-C₃₂) terrigenous plant wax fatty acids in 19 surface sediment samples geographically distributed throughout the Arabian Sea in order to assess the relationship between plant wax inputs and the surrounding monsoon wind systems. Both the accumulation rate data and the δ¹³C data show that there are three primary eolian sources of plant waxes to the Arabian Sea: Africa, Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula. These sources correspond to the three major wind systems in this region: the summer (Southwest) monsoon, the winter (Northeast) monsoon, and the summer northwesterlies that blow over the Arabian Peninsula. In addition, plant waxes are fluvially supplied to the Gulf of Oman and the Eastern African margin by nearby rivers. Plant wax δ¹³C values reflect the vegetation types of the continental source regions. Greater than 75% of the waxes from Africa and Asia are derived from C₄ plants. Waxes delivered by northwesterly winds reflect a greater influence (25-40%) of C₃ vegetation, likely derived from the Mesopotamian region. These data agree well with previously published studies of eolian dust deposition, particularly of dolomite derived from the Arabian Peninsula and the Mesopotamian region, in surface sediments of the Arabian Sea. The west-to-east gradient of plant wax δ¹³C and dolomite accumulation rates are separately useful indicators of the relationship between the northwesterly winds and the winds of the Southwest monsoon. Combined, however, these two proxies could provide a powerful tool for the reconstruction of both southwest monsoon strength as well as Mesopotamian aridity.     

The spatial distribution of tornadoes and high wind impacts associated with inland-moving tropical cyclones in the southeastern United States

The southeastern United States is routinely hit by tropical cyclones (TC). As TC track inland and dissipate their inland impacts can be substantial. This study examined the spatial patterns of societal impacts associated with tornadoes and high winds with 31 inland-moving TC that made landfall from 1985 to 2008. Hourly weather information was collected from all available first-order weather stations affected by each storm, as well as tropical cyclone preliminary reports issued from the National Hurricane Center. Societal impacts were identified through selected newspapers across the region and the National Climatic Data Center’s Storm Data. Geographic Information System (GIS) software was employed to make geometric measurements of the distance and direction of the impacts relative to storm center. From these measurements, the spatial distribution of the societal and meteorological impacts was plotted relative to the track (e.g., left vs. right) and location (forward vs. rear sector) of the cyclone center. Various tropical cyclone attributes, including size, strength, and forward speed of movement were then related to the occurrence of different impacts and their location relative to the cyclone track. The majority of tropical cyclone tornado and high wind impacts occur in the right-forward sector of the tropical cyclone. However, many TC produce impacts that occur in other sectors far from the center of circulation. These abnormalities are associated in many cases with interactions between the tropical cyclone circulation, topography, peripheral dry air, and extratropical synoptic weather features.