Modelling the Velocity Field in a Regular Grid in the Area of Poland on the Basis of the Velocities of European Permanent Stations

The paper presents the results of testing the various methods of permanent stations’ velocity residua interpolation in a regular grid, which constitutes a continuous model of the velocity field in the territory of Poland. Three packages of software were used in the research from the point of view of interpolation: GMT (The Generic Mapping Tools), Surfer and ArcGIS. The following methods were tested in the softwares: the Nearest Neighbor, Triangulation (TIN), Spline Interpolation, Surface, Inverse Distance to a Power, Minimum Curvature and Kriging. The presented research used the absolute velocities’ values expressed in the ITRF2005 reference frame and the intraplate velocities related to the NUVEL model of over 300 permanent reference stations of the EPN and ASG-EUPOS networks covering the area of Europe. Interpolation for the area of Poland was done using data from the whole area of Europe to make the results at the borders of the interpolation area reliable. As a result of this research, an optimum method of such data interpolation was developed. All the mentioned methods were tested for being local or global, for the possibility to compute errors of the interpolated values, for explicitness and fidelity of the interpolation functions or the smoothing mode. In the authors’ opinion, the best data interpolation method is Kriging with the linear semivariogram model run in the Surfer programme because it allows for the computation of errors in the interpolated values and it is a global method (it distorts the results in the least way). Alternately, it is acceptable to use the Minimum Curvature method. Empirical analysis of the interpolation results obtained by means of the two methods showed that the results are identical. The tests were conducted using the intraplate velocities of the European sites. Statistics in the form of computing the minimum, maximum and mean values of the interpolated North and East components of the velocity residuum were prepared for all the tested methods, and each of the resulting continuous velocity fields was visualized by means of the GMT programme. The interpolated components of the velocities and their residua are presented in the form of tables and bar diagrams.     

Distribution of secondary minerals in crusts developed on sandstone exposures

Previous research on rock weathering crusts has revealed their large variability depending on the type of host rocks and development of weathering processes. The composition of crusts developed on natural sandstone exposures is less documented in the literature in comparison to those developed on architectonic stones. In both cases, previous research has focused mainly on the progress of salt weathering. This study considers the surfaces of sandstone tors in the Polish Outer Carpathians. The exposed parts of the rocks in this area are often covered by crust, which is up to several centimetres thick, and differs from the internal part in colour and composition. The crusts were characterized using light and electron microscopy, X‐ray diffractometry, thermal analyses, Mössbauer spectroscopy, bulk chemical analyses and sequential chemical extractions. Porosity was estimated by digital image processing. The following two hardened zones were observed: (1) thin (up to 30 µm), black, external layer, rich in carbon and composed of opal‐type silica, covered in places by sulphate incrustations and numerous spherical particles of anthropogenic origin; (2) thicker (up to several millimetres), internal part composed of a set of laminae of variable colouration, enriched in iron (oxyhydr)oxides (goethite and hematite) in comparison to the rock interior. Development of the crust results from silicon and iron redistribution during the sandstone alteration. The chief source of silica is hydrolysis of aluminosilicates, whilst that of iron is decomposition of aluminosilicates, carbonates and sulphides. Hematite is probably a result of goethite transformation. However, air pollutants may play an important role in the formation of sulphates. Silica and iron compounds affect the properties of the rock, hardening the surface and lowering porosity by formation of secondary cement. Crystallization of sulphate salts, in turn, may contribute to mechanical disintegration of the rock. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Studies of aerosol optical depth with the use of Microtops II sun photometers and MODIS detectors in coastal areas of the Baltic Sea

In this paper we describe the results of a research campaign dedicated to the studies of aerosol optical properties in different regions of both the open Baltic Sea and its coastal areas. During the campaign we carried out simultaneous measurements of aerosol optical depth at 4 stations with the use of the hand-held Microtops II sun photometers. The studies were complemented with aerosol data provided by the MODIS. In order to obtain the full picture of aerosol situation over the study area, we added to our analyses the air mass back-trajectories at various altitudes as well as wind fields. Such complex information facilitated proper conclusions regarding aerosol optical depth and Ångström exponent for the four locations and discussion of the changes of aerosol properties with distance and with changes of meteorological factors. We also show that the Microtops II sun photometers are reliable instruments for field campaigns. They are easy to operate and provide good quality results.     

Clustering of mining-induced seismic events in equivalent dimension spaces

High energy release during seismic events induced by mining operation is one of the major dangers perturbing production in underground mines. In this work, temporal changes of seismic event parameters for one of the Rudna Mine (Poland) panels are investigated. The study aim was to find whether the temporal clustering of smaller events in different parameters can be observed before and after the high energy events (M_l?≥?3) in the mining panel. The method chosen for analysis was the study of temporal variation of fractal dimension of the seismic events parameter sets composed from: the interevent epicentral distance (dr), logarithm of seismic energy (lE), and interevent energy coefficient (dlE), which is the absolute difference between logarithms of energy of two consecutive events. Temporal variations study was performed in equivalent dimension (ED) space. The transformation of the seismic source parameters into ED space allowed to estimate and compare the temporal changes of the fractal dimension of different parameter spaces using the same method—correlation fractal dimension, and then easily compare the obtained temporal changes of fractal dimension of different parameter sets. The effect of grouping is expressed by decrease of fractal dimension, which is connected with the similarity of events parameter values. The temporal changes of the fractal dimension of seismicity before the strong induced events would indicate some initiation phase of the process leading to the high energy release. In the case of the studied Rudna Mine panel, the temporal behavior of the fractal dimension values in different parameter spaces before seismic events showed significant changes before three out of four events with CLVD dominant source mechanisms.     

Application of Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves to S-Phase Wave Anisotropy Estimation

The Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) is an increasingly used technique for recognition of a shallow geological structure and estimation of geotechnical parameters, e.g., S-wave velocity, layer density, layer thickness, shear modulus, estimated P-wave velocity, and estimated Poisson ratio. MASW surveys were carried out in two limestone quarries in the southern part of Poland. The experimental areas are characterised by a simple geological structure: consolidated Triassic limestone. Measurement profiles were arranged as a shapely six-pointed star. For each survey line, 12 geophones with 2-meter (Deposit 1) and 3-meter (Deposit 2) spacing were applied. The research allowed to compare P- and S-wave velocity changes with the main crack systems in the studied rock masses.     

The influence of meander bend evolution on the formation of multiple cutoffs: findings inferred from floodplain architecture and bend geometry

The evolution of meander bends and formation of cutoffs, including a series of cutoffs developed simultaneously in a number of bends, have been investigated by many researchers. However, relatively little is known about factors that lead to the development of multiple cutoffs that are formed subsequently at one location. The present study aims to determine the influence of meander bend development on multiple chute cutoff formation in a single bend. The research is based on the sedimentary record of meander migration and cutoffs preserved in a lowland river floodplain (the lower Obra River, Poland). Analysis of changes in meander geometry was conducted to describe the influence of their migration on cutoff formation and in other rivers where multiple cutoffs occurred. The results showed that multiple cutoffs in the lower Obra River have occurred during the last 3000 years, owing to the interaction of upstream and downstream controls: migration of meander bends in opposing directions accompanied by an increase of flood frequency and sediment supply. The flow and sediment supply has been further altered since the nineteenth century due to anthropogenic impacts: an artificial cutoff of the downstream bend and elevation of channel levées. Similar mechanisms driving the formation of multiple cutoff have been found in other river courses, despite significantly higher energy of the compared rivers. Moreover, development of a confined‐shape bend (caused by artificial barrier or autogenic bend behaviour) may also favour the formation of multiple cutoffs. However, counter migration of meanders enhanced by increased flood frequency and sediment supply are primary triggers for such events. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Resik: A Bent Crystal X-ray Spectrometer for Studies of Solar Coronal Plasma Composition

We describe the RESIK (REntgenovsky Spektrometr s Izognutymi Kristalami) instrument, consisting of two double-channel X-ray spectrometers, designed to observe solar active region and flare plasmas. RESIK is one of the instruments making up the scientific payload of the Russian CORONAS-F solar mission. The uncollimated spectrometer uses two silicon and two quartz bent crystals observing flare, active region and coronal spectra in four wavelength bands with a resolving power (/ ) of 1000. The wavelength coverage, 3.3–6.1 Å, includes emission lines of Si, S, Cl, Ar, and K and in the third diffraction order, the wavelength range includes He-like Fe lines (1.85 Å) and Ni lines (1.55 Å) with dielectronic satellites, emitted during intense, hot flares. The instrument is believed to be the best calibrated space-borne crystal spectrometer flown to date. The spectrometer dynamically adjusts the data gathering intervals from 1 s to 5 minutes, depending on the level of solar X-ray emission at the time of observation. The principal aims of RESIK are the measurements of relative and absolute element abundances in the emitting plasma and the temperature distribution of plasma (differential emission measure) over the temperature interval 3 and 50 MK. This paper summarizes the scientific objectives of RESIK and describes the design, characteristics, and performance of the instrument.