Challenges for Sustainable Mineral Resources Development in the 21st Century*

Abstract. The modern minerals industry is more environmentally responsible and socially aware than at any time in the past, and yet faces increasing challenges to improve its performance in these areas still further. Some of these expectations are reasonable and achievable, but others are unrealistic (e.g., “zero impact”) if real development is to continue. Moreover, because society is the ultimate beneficiary of the industry's products, it should be prepared to pay for the improvements it demands. Currently externalized costs, such as many environmental and social impacts, should be internalized into prices, and higher royalties should be charged on gross revenue to ensure effective capture of value of non‐renewable resources by host countries. Such costs to consumers could be offset by higher recycling value, leasing, or deposit‐return schemes. NGOs have an important role to play in working with industry to convince society to accept such changes.     

Modeling the mesoscale variability in the Adriatic Sea

A new high-resolution (<2 km) version of the DieCAST fourth-accuracy-order model for the ocean circulation is proposed for the study of the general circulation, mesoscale structures, and their variability in the Adriatic Sea. The model uses mean seasonal data on the temperature, salinity, buoyancy fluxes, and wind. The data of the COAMPS system with a 4-km resolution were used for the simulation of the sea response to the effects of various winds: Sirocco, Maestro, and two types of boras. The mean monthly runoffs from 38 rivers and mean daily runoffs from 12 main rivers throughout the year were given in the model. The conditions at the open boundary of the Strait of Otranto were given on the basis of the hierarchy of two coarser models for the Adriatic and Mediterranean seas. Due to the extremely weak dissipation and the high resolution (the mesh size is less than the baroclinic radius of deformation, 5–10 km), the model allows one to trace the development of a baroclinic instability along the Italian coast, to simulate mesoscale structures associated with the instability, and to estimate the scales of the structures. Mesoscale filaments, meanders, mushroom-like currents, fronts, and intrusions known from satellite observations were simulated and explained. The scenario of the anomalous upwelling near the Italian coast observed in the summer of 2003 was also simulated and analyzed.     

Effect of common point selection on coordinate transformation parameter determination

The use of satellite positioning techniques commonly requires a transformation from a Conventional Terrestrial coordinate system to a Geodetic coordinate system, or vice versa. For such a transformation, the main problem is the determination of transformation parameters between these coordinate systems. The transformation parameters are estimated by a least-squares process using “common” points, i.e., those points whose coordinates are known in both systems. Therefore, the precision of so estimated transformation parameters is closely related to certain characteristics of the common points. In this contribution, we have formulated some theoretical relations between the transformation parameters and the number and the distribution of common points, and corroborated the theoretical results numerically, using a simulated geodetic network.     

On the use of IPCC-class models to assess the impact of climate on Living Marine Resources

The study of climate impacts on Living Marine Resources (LMRs) has increased rapidly in recent years with the availability of climate model simulations contributed to the assessment reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Collaboration between climate and LMR scientists and shared understanding of critical challenges for such applications are essential for developing robust projections of climate impacts on LMRs. This paper assesses present approaches for generating projections of climate impacts on LMRs using IPCC-class climate models, recommends practices that should be followed for these applications, and identifies priority developments that could improve current projections. Understanding of the climate system and its representation within climate models has progressed to a point where many climate model outputs can now be used effectively to make LMR projections. However, uncertainty in climate model projections (particularly biases and inter-model spread at regional to local scales), coarse climate model resolution, and the uncertainty and potential complexity of the mechanisms underlying the response of LMRs to climate limit the robustness and precision of LMR projections. A variety of techniques including the analysis of multi-model ensembles, bias corrections, and statistical and dynamical downscaling can ameliorate some limitations, though the assumptions underlying these approaches and the sensitivity of results to their application must be assessed for each application. Developments in LMR science that could improve current projections of climate impacts on LMRs include improved understanding of the multi-scale mechanisms that link climate and LMRs and better representations of these mechanisms within more holistic LMR models. These developments require a strong baseline of field and laboratory observations including long time series and measurements over the broad range of spatial and temporal scales over which LMRs and climate interact. Priority developments for IPCC-class climate models include improved model accuracy (particularly at regional and local scales), inter-annual to decadal-scale predictions, and the continued development of earth system models capable of simulating the evolution of both the physical climate system and biosphere. Efforts to address these issues should occur in parallel and be informed by the continued application of existing climate and LMR models.     

Jinshanjiangite and bafertisite from the Gremyakha-Vyrmes Alkaline Complex,Kola Peninsula

Jinshanjiangite (acicular crystals up to 2 mm in length) and bafertisite (lamellar crystals up to 3 × 4 mm in size) have been found in alkali granite pegmatite of the Gremyakha-Vyrmes Complex, Kola Peninsula. Albite, microcline, quartz, arfvedsonite, zircon, and apatite are associated minerals. The dimensions of a monoclinic unit cell of jinshanjiangite and bafertisite are: a = 10.72(2), b=13.80(2), c = 20.94(6) Å, β = 97.0(5)° and a = 10.654(6), b = 13.724(6), c = 10.863(8) Å, β = 94.47(8)°, respectively. The typical compositions (electron microprobe data) of jinshanjiangite and bafertisite are: (Na_0.57Ca_0.44)_Σ1.01(Ba_0.57K_0.44)_Σ1.01 (Fe_3.53Mn_0.30Mg_0.04Zn_0.01)_Σ3.88(Ti_1.97Nb_0.06Zr_0.01)_Σ2.04(Si_3.97Al_0.03O₁₄)O_2.00(OH_2.25F_0.73O_0.02)_Σ3.00 and (Ba_1.98Na_0.04K_0.03)_Σ2.05(Fe_3.43Mn_0.37Mg_0.03)_Σ3.83(Ti_2.02Nb_0.03)_Σ2.05 (Si_3.92Al_0.08O₁₄)(O_1.84OH_0.16)_Σ2.00(OH_2.39F_1.61)_Σ3.00, respectively. The minerals studied are the Fe-richest members of the bafertisite structural family.     

Ozone and airglow in the mesosphere region

The paper presents the results of a photometric study of the hydroxyl bands (7–2) and (8–3) in the night airglow spectrum at Mt. Abu in the winter and spring of 1966–1972. The observed nocturnal variation differs from the variation expected from the theoretical studies of Hesstvedt, Hunt, Shimazaki and others. Instead of a gradual fall in intensity after sunset to shortly before sunrise, a peak in intensity is found at a time which changes from month to month and roughly coincides with the transit times of the X-ray star TAU (XR-1)-Crab Nebula. Anexplanation of the observed phenomenon is offered in terms of the increased energy output into the D and E regions of the atmospheres, increased eddy diffusion, and production, of additional O(³P) and O₃ in the region 80–95 km. O₃ reacting with H gives rise to OH^*.     

Sheath formation inOscillatoria agardhii Gomont

Sheath formation was observed in laboratory culturedO. agardhii. The sheath serves as a protective cover against bacteria. Some comments on sheath formation by this alga are given.

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Zusammenfassung Scheidenbildung beiOscillatoria agardhii Gomont Im Kulturmaterial vonOscillatoria agardhii Gomont wurde die Bildung von Scheiden beobachtet. Diese dienen als Schutz gegen Bakterien. Es werden weitere überlegungen über die Scheidenbildung bei dieser Alge angestellt.

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Résumé Formation de gaines chezOscillatoria agardhii Gomont La formation d’une gaine chezOscillatoria agardhii Gomont fut observée dans une culture. Ces gaines protègent les algues contre les bactéries. Des considérations ultérieures sont faites sur le phénomène des gaines chez cette algue.

     

Modelling waving crops in a wind tunnel

Analysis of movie films of a field of barley, combined with observations of the motions of individual plants, show that single stalks oscillate at a well-defined natural frequency even when stimulated by turbulent winds. Treating single stalks as resonant cantilevers allows the use of standard engineering methods to determine their elastic properties. Armed with these values, the application of similarity analysis to the equation of motion of a single stalk leads to criteria for aeroelastic modelling of wheat plants in the wind tunnel. A representative value for the spacing of stalks in a small section of model wheat field was calculated by referring to published data on momentum absorption in a variety of real and model canopies. Preliminary measurements of first and second moments of velocity in the model appear to confirm the importance of including elastic properties in wind-tunnel simulations of airflow in flexible crops.