Construction of Structural Geological Model Using Monte Carlo Simulation

Geotechnical and Geological Engineering - To optimize the prediction of structural geological conditions in the underground as of data collected at the surface, due to the usual great uncertainties...     

Life in sandy deserts: the scorpion model

The biology, ecology, biogeography, phylogeny, and evolution of sand-dwelling scorpions are reviewed. We present general features of sand that form the ecological theatre on which psammophiles have evolved. Sand scorpions, compared to those that live off sand, are not very diverse in any one local habitat, although they are often relatively abundant. Worldwide, they are represented by 29 genera, 11 of which exist exclusively in sand. Endemic genera belong to non-related families, suggesting that psammophilic adaptations evolvedin situin different sand deserts of the world.     

Late Cenozoic geomorphologic signal of Andean forearc deformation and tilting associated with the uplift and climate changes of the Southern Atacama Desert (26°S–28°S)

We analyze remarkable examples of the large ( 10,000 km²) and local-scale ( 100 km²) landscape forms related to Late Cenozoic geomorphologic evolution of the Andean forearc region in the Southern Atacama Desert. We also consider the continental sedimentary deposits, so-called “Atacama Gravels”, which are related to the degradation of the landscape during the Neogene. Our analysis integrates 1:50,000 field cartography, Landsat TM images observations,  1:1000 sedimentary logging data, and 50 m horizontal resolution topographic data to reconstruct the Late Cenozoic geomorphologic evolution of this region and discuss the factors that control it, i.e., Miocene aridification of the climate and Neogene Central Andean uplift. We determine that the Precordillera was already formed in the Oligocene and most of the present-day altitude of the Precordillera was reached before that time. Afterward, five episodes of geomorphologic evolution can be differentiated: (1) the development of an Oligocene deep incised drainage system cutting the uplifted Precordillera (up to 2000 m of vertical incision) and connecting it to the Ocean; followed by (2) the infilling of deep incised valleys by up to 400 m of Atacama Gravels. This infill started in the Early Miocene with the development of fluvial deposition and finished in the Middle Miocene with playa and playa lake depositions. We propose that playa-related deposition occurs in an endorheic context related to tectonic activity of the Atacama Fault System and Coastal Cordillera uplift. However, the upward sedimentologic variation in the Atacama Gravels evidences a progressive aridification of the climate. Subsequently, we have identified the effects of the Middle–Upper Miocene slow tectonic deformation: the Neogene Andean uplift is accommodated by a tilting or flexuring of the inner-forearc (Central Depression and Precordillera) related to some hundreds of meters of uplift in the Precordillera. This tilting or flexuring results in (3) the Middle Miocene re-opening of the valley network to the Pacific Ocean. Upper Miocene aridification, from arid to hyperarid, induces alluvial fans backfilling in the Central Depression (4) resulting in up to 50 m of Atacama Gravel deposition. Finally, in response to an increase in the rate of tilting, a new phase of vertical incision (up to 800 m in the Precordillera) allows the development of the canyon that crosses the forearc (5).     

On the origin of the 511-keV emission in the Galactic Centre

Diffuse 511-keV line emission, from the annihilation of cold positrons, has been observed in the direction of the Galactic Centre for more than 30 yr. The latest high-resolution maps of this emission produced by the SPI instrument on INTEGRAL suggest at least one component of the emission is spatially coincident with the distribution of ∼70 luminous, low-mass X-ray binaries detected in the soft gamma-ray band. The X-ray band, however, is generally a more sensitive probe of X-ray binary populations. Recent X-ray surveys of the Galactic Centre have discovered a much larger population (>4000) of faint, hard X-ray point sources. We investigate the possibility that the positrons observed in the direction of the Galactic Centre originate in pair-dominated jets generated by this population of fainter accretion-powered X-ray binaries. We also consider briefly whether such sources could account for unexplained diffuse emission associated with the Galactic Centre in the microwave (the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 'haze') and at other wavelengths. Finally, we point out several unresolved problems in associating Galactic Centre 511-keV emission with the brightest X-ray binaries.     

Numerical simulations of the tropical air-sea planetary boundary layer

A one-dimensional numerical model of the planetary boundary layer was used to investigate thermal and kinetic energy budgets. The simulation experiments were based on two sets of data. The first set was based on a ‘typical’ June with climatological data extracted for the oceanic region slightly northeast of Barbados. The second set used data from the third phase of project BOMEX, for approximately the same area and time of year as the first set. Comparison with observations of three simulated elements (viz., sea surface temperature and wind and humidity at 6 m) which are important in determining the near-interface energy transports shows that:

1. the model is capable of realistic simulations of both ‘typical’ conditions, and conditions for a specific four-day period;
2. the model is capable of realistically simulating the differences between prevailing values of these parameters in the two cases (‘typical’ and specific four-day period).

The simulated interface fluxes are those of incoming and outgoing short- and long-wave radiation; transmitted radiation at -0.5 m in the ocean, sensible heat transfer into the ocean and air, and latent heat flux of evaporation. Comparison with observational analyses shows that the diurnal variations in net radiation and heat storage in the mixed layer are realistically simulated. The simulated values of evaporation are consistent with other estimates for both ‘typical’ conditions and specific conditions during this four-day period. The rate of heat storage varies between +51 and -37 percent of the diurnal maximum incoming radiation, and the evaporation varies between +16% and -13% of this term. The non-dimensional transfer coefficients (C _D, C_T, C_q) computed from the model show general agreement with the coefficients calculated from observations in the simulated region (Pondet al., 1971). The simulated vertical profiles of temperature are in general agreement with observed profiles, except in the uppermost portions of the atmospheric boundary layer where deviations of approximately 1.5C occur. Simulated vertical profiles of wind speed are generally consistent with observed profiles, with the largest deviations appearing to be of the order of 0.5 m s^-1. Simulated vertical profiles of the eddy fluxes of sensible heat, water vapor, and momentum are generally consistent with Bunker's (1970) aircraft-based measurements of these quantities. The time averages of these simulated profiles show regular decreases with height, while simulated profiles for specific hours of the day show intermediate maxima and minima, which are also seen in the measured profiles. The vertically integrated kinetic energy budgets of the modelled atmospheric layer are presented through the four terms of the kinetic energy budget, viz., the upper and the lower boundary drags, dissipation, and potential-to-kinetic conversion. The dominant terms in the atmospheric energy budgets are the production and dissipation terms, with kinetic energy being exported both to the overlying atmospheric layer and to the underlying oceanic layer at rates of about 2 to 6% of the production, respectively. Comparisons between the climatological and BOMEX simulations are presented. The vertically integrated humidity budgets are presented for the two simulation experiments. Under ‘typical’ conditions, the humidity budget reveals an upper boundary flux of about +29% of the lower boundary flux with the vertically integrated advective flux being -59% of the lower flux. For the specific four-day simulation, the upper boundary flux and advection are about +28 and -70%, respectively, of the lower boundary flux.     

Pyramidal structures on Mars

Triangular and polygonal pyramid like structures have been observed on the martian surface. Located in the east central portion of Elysium Quadrangle (MC-15), these features are visible on the Mariner 9 photographs, B frames MTVS 4205-3 DAS 07794853 and MTVS 4296-24 DAS 12985882. The structures cast triangular and polygonal shadows. Steep-sided volcanic cones and impact craters occur only a few kilometers away. The mean diameter of the triangular pyramidal structures at the base is approximately 3.0 km, and the mean diameter of the polygonal structures is approximately 6.0 km.The observed Martian structures tend to line up suggesting joint or fault control. However, they do not appear to be controlled by the visible faults. The structures appear to be either wind-faceted volcanic cones and blocks or solidified blocks which have been rotated in semiconsolidated lava.     

B and Li isotopes as intrinsic tracers for injection tests in aquifer storage and recovery systems

Boron and Li isotopes have been tested as environmental tracers of treated sewage injected into a sandy aquifer (Shafdan reclamation project, Israel). During a 38 days injection test in a newly dug injection well, a conservative artificial tracer (Br⁻) was monitored together with δ¹¹B and δ⁷Li in the injectate, in the unsaturated soil zone (porous cup) and an observation well in the aquifer. In spite of B and Li concentrations in the injectate close to background values, significant shifts of the isotope signatures could be observed over the duration of the injection test. Boron isotope ratios show a breakthrough curve delayed with respect to Br⁻ breakthrough due to some reversible sorption on the aquifer material. No isotope fractionation was observed in the unsaturated or the saturated zone so that B isotopes can be considered as conservative in the investigated part of the aquifer system. Lithium isotopes are strongly fractionated, probably due to sorption processes. Lithium concentrations point to a Li sink in the system, δ⁷Li values vary strongly with a tendency of ⁷Li depletion in the liquid phase over the duration of the experiment. This is opposite to the expected preferential sorption of ⁶Li onto clay minerals. Boron isotopes reveals a valuable tracer of artificial recharge of freshwaters derived from treated sewage, both for short term tracer tests and for long-term monitoring of artificial recharge, even if in aquifers with higher clay contents, sorption-linked isotope fractionation cannot be excluded. More data are needed on Li isotope fractionation in natural groundwater systems to assess the potential of this tracer as monitoring tool.     

Roles of methane and carbon dioxide in geological processes on Mars

We discuss in this paper possible roles of methane and carbon dioxide in geological processes on Mars. These volatiles in the martian crust may migrate upward from their sources either directly or via various traps (structural, sedimentary, ground ice, gas hydrates). They are then likely emitted to the atmosphere by seepage or through diverse vent structures. Though gas hydrates have never been directly detected on Mars, theoretical studies favor their presence in the crust and polar caps; they could have played an important role as significant gas reservoirs in the subsurface. The martian gas hydrates would possibly be a binary system of methane and carbon dioxide occupying clathrate cavities. Landforms such as mud volcanoes with well-known linkage to gas venting are extensively distributed on Earth, and methane is the primary gas involved. Thus, identification of these landforms on Mars could suggest that methane and possibly carbon dioxide have contributed to geological processes of the planet. For example, we present a newly identified field in Chryse Planitia where features closely resembling terrestrial mud volcanoes occur widely, though with no observable activity. We also present results of a preliminary search for possible recent or present-day, methane-emission zones in the regions over which enrichments of atmospheric methane have been reported.     

Lagrangian analysis by clustering

We propose a new method for obtaining average velocities and eddy diffusivities from Lagrangian data. Rather than grouping the drifter-derived velocities in geographical bins, we group them by nearest-neighbor distance using a clustering algorithm. This yields sets with approximately the same number of observations, covering unequal areas. A major advantage is that, because the number of observations is the same for the clusters, the statistical accuracy is more uniform than with geographical bins. We illustrate the technique using synthetic data from a stochastic model, employing a realistic mean flow. The latter represents the surface currents in the Nordic Seas and is strongly inhomogeneous in space. We use the clustering algorithm to extract the mean velocities and diffusivities and compare the results with the corresponding quantities from the stochastic model. We perform a similar comparison with the means and diffusivities obtained with geographical bins. Clustering is more successful at capturing the mean flow and improves convergence in the eddy diffusivity estimates. We discuss both the advantages and shortcomings of the new method.