Geometric constraints on composition of sediment derived from erosional landscapes

Although unroofing sequences are well known in the stratigraphic record, there is no general theory for estimating relevant basic quantities such as the time history of sediment production from a particular unit or the degree of mixing between successive units. Here we investigate the production of sediment from layered source rocks that are milled off by steady-state erosional topography. The shape of the sediment-production function for milling off a thin horizontal layer is given by the derivative of the hypsometric function, in the form of area contained within contours as a function of contour altitude. The time-scale for the production function, the ‘topographic mixing time’, is set by the topographic relief divided by the uplift rate. The production function for a sharp transition from one unit to another is given directly by the hypsometric function. The effects of stratal dip parallel to the mean slope of the erosional topography and finite layer thickness can be accounted for to a first approximation by simple geometric corrections to the mixing time. Finite layer thickness also has the effect of smoothing the production function although most natural hypsometric functions are smooth enough that this effect is relatively weak. The quality of an unroofing sequence can be measured in terms of the ‘sharpness’ of separation of successive peaks in sediment production produced by milling off a sequence of geometrically similar layers. This peak sharpness can be parameterized by a ratio of the interval between successive peaks in sediment production to topographic mixing time. By this measure, the quality of unroofing sequences is controlled by two parameters: the ratio of layer thickness to topographic relief, and the dip angle. The dip angle in concert with topographic mixing exerts a strong control on the degree of signal segregation; in particular, production of cleanly segregated signals for dip angles greater than about 15° requires very high ratios of layer thickness to relief. Hence identification of distinct unroofing sequences may place significant and useful constraints on the attitude and/or thickness of units in the eroding stratigraphy.     

Pit crater structure and processes governing persistent activity at Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua

 Persistent activity at Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua, is characterised by cycles of intense degassing, lava lake development and pit crater formation. It provides a useful site to study the processes which govern such activity, because of its easy accessibility and relatively short cycles (years to decades). An understanding of the present activity is important because Masaya is visited by large numbers of tourists, is located close to major cities and has produced voluminous lavas, plinian eruptions and ignimbrites in the recent past. We provide structural and geophysical data that characterise the "normal" present state of activity. These indicate that the ongoing degassing phase (1993 to present) was not caused by fresh magma intrusion. It was associated with shallow density changes within the active Santiago pit crater. The activity appears to be associated predominantly with shallow changes in the pit crater structure. More hazardous activity will occur only if there are significant departures from the present gravity, deformation and seismic signatures. Received: 16 May 1997 / Accepted: 29 October 1997     

Coda Q before and after the eruptions of 13 November 1985, and 1 September 1989, at Nevado del Ruiz Volcano, Colombia

 Coda Q^–1 was calculated at Nevado del Ruiz Volcano (NRV) before and after two phreatomagmatic eruptions (November 1985, September 1989) and for a period of stability (May 1987) using a functional form for coda derived from a single scattering model (Sato 1977). Substantial changes were found before and after the eruptions. The highest value of Q^–1 was found during the November 1985 eruption, an intermediate value for the September 1989 eruption, and the lowest value for May 1987. It seems that the changes in coda Q^–1 at NRV have a still-unknown relationship with the volume or magnitude of the eruption. A relatively strong frequency dependence was found for all periods. Also Q^–1 clearly changed with time, suggesting that the scattering was strong for the eruption of November 1985 and decreased for the eruption of September 1989, and that the intrinsic absorption probably increased. This suggests the possibility that crystallization is taking place in the NRV magma. The clear change of coda Q^–1 before and after the eruptions at NRV also suggests the possibility that coda Q^–1 is a premonitory tool of activity at this volcano. Received: 25 October 1996 / Accepted: 21 January 1998     

A hybrid discrete-continuum approach to model hydro-mechanical behaviour of jointed rocks

A hybrid discrete-continuum approach has been presented in this paper to simulate water flow in the near and far fields of deformable fractured rocks. In the near field, the discrete model is used; while in the far field, the equivalent continuum model is employed. The discrete element method (with the static relaxation algorithm) is used in the near field and the boundary integral equation method in the far field. Along the interface of these two domains, both mechanical and hydraulic compatibility conditions are satisfied. Fully coupled hydro-mechanical analysis can be conducted in the combined near and far fields. Application to a dam foundation problem has demonstrated the capability of the developed approach.     

Intrusion–Related Vein Gold Deposits: Types, Tectono-Magmatic Settings and Difficulties of Distinction from Orogenic Gold Deposits

Abstract: A spectrum of intrusion-related vein gold deposits is recognized. Representative examples are described of the following geochemical associations: Au-Fe oxide–Cu, Au–Cu–Mo–Zn, Au–As–Pb–Zn–Cu, Au–Te–Pb–Zn–Cu and Au–As–Bi–Sb. The associated intrusions range from small outcropping stocks to complex batholiths. The different vein associations are believed to reflect the compositions of related intrusions, which themselves characterize distinct tectonic settings. The Au-Fe oxide–Cu and Au–Cu–Mo–Zn associations belong to two broad groups of deposits, Fe oxide–Cu–Au and porphyry Cu–Au, both of which are related to highly oxidized calc-alkaline intrusions emplaced in sub–duction–related arcs. The Au–As–Pb–Zn–Cu association seems to be linked to somewhat less oxidized intrusions emplaced in a similar setting. The Au–Te–Pb–Zn–Cu association, which possesses well-known epithermal counterparts, is also found with highly oxidized intrusions, but of alkaline composition and back-arc location. In contrast, the Au–As–Bi–Sb association, part of a newly recognized class of intrusion-hosted Au–Bi–W–As deposits, is related to relatively reduced intrusions, spanning the boundary between the magnetite– and ilmenite–series. Such intrusions, which may host major bulk-mineable gold deposits, were emplaced along the landward sides of arcs, possibly during lulls in subduction, as well as in continental collision settings. Therefore, a variety of geological environments is prospective for vein and, by extrapolation, other styles of gold mineralization, not all of them fully appreciated in the past. Several features of vein gold deposits, including imprecise relationships to individual intrusive phases, poorly developed mineral and metal zoning, apparent time gaps between intrusion and mineralization and presence of low–salinity, CO₂–rich fluid inclusions, are commonly taken to indicate a non-igneous origin and to be more typical of orogenic (mesothermal) gold deposits generated during accretionary tectonic events. However, several or all of these features apply equally to some intrusion– related vein gold deposits and, therefore, do not constitute distinguishing criteria. The currently popular assignment of most gold-rich veins to the orogenic category requires caution, because of the geological convergence that they show with some intrusion-related deposits. A proper distinction between intrusion-related and orogenic gold deposits is crucial for exploration planning.     

Effects of salinity and temperature on the bioenergetics of adult stages of the grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio Holthuis) from the North Inlet Estuary, South Carolina

The influence of temperature, salinity, body size, and sex on the bioenergetics and life-history parameters of grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio Holthuis) was determined under laboratory conditions. Sex and/or size show a highly significant effect only on energy allocation for metabolism. Temperature, salinity and their interaction are the main effects on most energetic parameters, with temperature showing the strongest influence on both life-history parameters and energetics. The adult grass shrimp's energy budget is different from that of larval or juvenile stages, in that most of the energy ingested by adults is allocated to reproduction. Under optimal conditions (25°C and 28‰), allocation of ingested energy in the adult grass shrimp is 51.7% for reproduction, 25.4% for respiration, 14.1% for somatic growth, 4.8% for exoskeletons, and 1.8% for excretion.     

Food habits and growth of juvenile striped bassMorone saxatilis, in Albemarle Sound, North Carolina

Juvenile striped bass,Morone saxatilis, collected in Albemarle Sound, North Carolina, during 1988–1992 were examined for food habits and growth. Ages estimated from otoliths collected in 1990–1992 were used to determine individual spawning dates and growth in total length and weight. The majority of striped bass examined had been spawned in mid-May 1990, mid-May to early June 1991, and June to early July 1992. Mysid shrimp was the dominant prey taxon and was consumed in all size classes examined. Mysid shrimp were consumed at twice the rate of copepods and 10 times more frequently than cladocerans. Fishes were a minor prey taxon. The number of mysid shrimp consumed increased with increasing length of striped bass. A higher percentage of mysid shrimp were consumed in the more saline waters of the central sound than in the less saline western sound. The opposite trend was found for consumed fishes. Increases in total length were linear from July to October, but increases in weight were not. Weight increased less rapidly in younger striped bass and more rapidly in older striped bass than either length or age. Quadratic and logarithmic equations accurately predicted weight from measures of total length but weight could not be predicted from age nor could age be predicted from total length. Estimating growth from total length at time of capture may be comparing fish of different ages. Age estimation from otoliths allowed us to determine that growth rates were similar among years and that differences in observed total length over time were due to different spawning times and not growth rates.     

Use of annular flumes to determine the influence of current velocity and bivalves on material flux at the sediment-water interface

A benthic annular flume for both laboratory and in situ deployment on intertidal mudflats is described. The flume provides a means of quantifying material flux (i.e., biodeposition of suspended particulates, sediment resuspension, nutrients, oxygen, and contaminants) across the sediment-water interface in relation to changes in current velocity and benthic community structure and/or population density of key macrofauna species. Flume experiments have investigated the impact of the infaunal bivalveMacoma balthica and the epifaunal bivalveMytilus edulis on seston and sediment flux at the sediment-water interface. The bioturbatorMacoma was found to increase the sediment resuspension and/or erodability by 4-fold, at densities similar to those recorded at the Skeffling mudflat (Humber estuary) (i.e., >1000 individuals m^?2). There was a significant correlation between sediment resuspension andMacoma density (r=0.99; p<0.001), which supported previous in situ field observations indicating bioturbation byMacoma enhanced sediment erodability. Biodeposition rates (g m^?2 h¹) ofMytilus edulis andCerastoderma edule were quantified and related to changes in population density in a mussel bed (Cleethorpes, Humber estuary). Biodeposition rates were up to 40-times the natural sedimentation rates. At the highest mussel bed densities (i.e., 50–100% cover or >1400 mussels m^?2) the physical presence of this epifaunal bivalve on the sediment surface reduced erosion by 10-fold. The shift from net biodeposition to net erosion occurred at current velocities of 20–25 cm s^?1. These results demonstrate that infaunal and epifaunal bivalves can have a significant impact on seston flux or sediment deposition and on sediment resuspension or erodability in estuaries where there are extensive mudflats.