Geometry and kinematics of early Alpine nappes in a Briançonnais basement (Ambin Massif,Western Alps)

Petrological and structural observations from the Ambin pre-alpine basement dome and from its Briançonnais and Piedmont covers show an early D1 nappe-forming event overprinted by a major D2 (+?D3) ductile shearing deformation. The D1 event is characterised by garnet-blueschist facies metamorphic assemblages retrogressed to greenschist facies conditions during D2 then D3 stages near the top of the dome. North-verging D1 structures preserved in the core of the dome are consistent with alpine evolutionary models, in which exhumation of HP–LT metamorphic alpine rocks occurs initially in a north–south direction. To cite this article: J. Ganne et al., C. R. Geoscience 336 (2004).     

The behavior of shape preferred orientations in metamorphic rocks: amphiboles and jadeites from the Monte Mucrone area (Sesia-Lanzo zone, Italian Western Alps)

In the eclogitic micaschists of the Monte Mucrone area (Sesia-Lanzo zone, Italian Western Alps), we have measured in detail the eclogitic lineation at several outcrops. We present observations at the markers scale, this scale allowing the whole range of progressive deformations to be described. Populations of glaucophanes and jadeites show different statistical features which must be, at least for a part, produced by the distinct mechanical behavior for these markers during the alpine history. The glaucophanes show a positive correlation between the intensity of preferred orientation and their aspect ratio, due to a mainly rigid behavior. The observed differences in shape and orientation of jadeites also show different behavior, related to different retromorphic overprints. We briefly discuss the implications of these observations on the significance of metamorphic lineations.     

The karst system of the Fontaine de Vaucluse (Southeastern France)

The intake area of the Fontaine de Vauctuse system covers over 1,100 km²; its mean altitude is 870 m. The Lower Cretaceous limestones (1,500 m thick) give the system a very thick (800 m) unsaturated zone.Karstification is very well developed, both on the intake area (four sinkholes are more than 500 m deep) and on the lower part (sunken cave of 300 m depth under the spring). The bottoms of the sinkholes of the plateau do not reach the saturated zone of the karst, as their flows have chemical composition similar to seepage water. The maximum hydraulic gradient between the plateau and the spring is low, only 0.3%. Dye tracings allow assigning the Ventoux-Lure range (including its calcareous northern side with a southward dipping) and the Vaucluse Plateau to the intake area. The moisture balance, calculated for each altitude belt, shows that the effective rainfall strongly increases with altitude: 120 mm below 200 m, 1,300 mm over 1,800 m. The working of the system, studied by means of discharge, physical and chemical content, is one of a well-karstified milieu that reacts with a light inertia upon rainy periods. The system is made up of important reserves, peculiarly within the unsaturated zone, which maintain long decline and depletion episodes. Despite its large average discharge (21 m³·sec^–1), the spring is not harnessed and thus no general protection exists on the intake area. Only local protection is provided by protection areas around some piped little springs of the plateau. A Biosphere Preserve will protect as a whole the higher part of the intake area—Mount Ventoux.     

On the computation of the barotropic mode of a free-surface world ocean model

The free-surface formulation of the equations of our world ocean model is briefly described. The barotropic mode equations are solved according to the split-explicit method, using different time steps for the external and internal modes. Because the numerical algorithm is implemented on the B-grid, a spurious, free-surface, two-grid interval mode may develop. This mode must be filtered out. The properties of two filters are theoretically investigated and their actual performance is tested in a series of numerical experiments. It is seen that one of these filters may severely perturb the local mass conservation, rendering it impossible to enforce the impermeability of the surface or the bottom of the ocean. The dynamics of the external mode is also examined, by studying the depth-integrated momentum equations. The depth-integral of the pressure force due to the slope of the ocean surface is approximately balanced by the depth-integral of the force ensuing from the horizontal variations of the density. The depth-integral of the Coriolis force is an order of magnitude smaller, except in the Southern Ocean. Two variational principles are resorted to for computing the fictitious ocean surface elevation corresponding to the approximate equilibrium between the dominant forces of the barotropic momentum equations.     

Microstructural criteria for reliable thermometry in low-temperature eclogites

Two Alpine eclogite bodies, sampled in metaophiolitic complexes of the Piemonte Zone, have been studied for geothermometry. It is demonstrated that temperature estimates, by both exchange thermometry and sizes of antiphase domains in omphacites, give rise to erratic results when the defect structures of the minerals are not taken into account. Microstructural criteria, by means of both optical and TEM microscopy, for reliable thermometry in low-temperature eclogites are disscussed. The dynamically recrystallized grains are the more suitable sites for the application of exchange thermometry, while only low-strained omphacites can be used for thermometry based on APD's.     

Experimental investigation on the grain-scale compression behavior of loose wet granular material

The behavior of model granular materials (glass beads) wetted by a small quantity of liquid forming capillary bridges is studied by one-dimensional compression test combined with X-ray computed tomography (XRCT) observation. Special attention is paid to obtain very loose initial states (initial void ratio of about 2.30) stabilized by capillary cohesion. XRCT-based analyses involve spherical particle detection adapted to relatively low-resolution images, which enable heterogeneities to be visualized and microstructural information to be collected. This study on an ideal material provides an insight into the macroscopic compression behavior of wet granular materials based on the microstructural change, such as pore distance distribution, coordination number of contacts, coordination number of neighbors and number of contacts per grain.

     

Assessment of water resources to support the development of irrigation in northwest Cambodia: a water budget approach

Water availability is the primary constraint on the improvement of food security in rural areas in northwestern Cambodia. A 4-year study was carried out in the upper Stung Sreng watershed to assess water resources. Four sub-watersheds with different land cover types, ranging in size from 1.5 to 185 km², were monitored using dedicated weather stations and rain- and streamgauges. Geophysics and observation boreholes were used to characterize aquifers. Rainwater is mostly split into evapotranspiration (annual mean of 54% rainfall) and streamflow components (49%), because groundwater recharge is low (1%). Thus, rainwater and streamflow are the main sources for irrigation development. Groundwater can be used only in specific locations for low water-demand crops. A total of 186 household ponds and three village-scale dams were built and 31 wells were installed. The household pond was determined to be the best solution for irrigation development because of its simple management.

EDITOR A. Castellarin ASSOCIATE EDITOR M. Piniewski     

Testing the survival of microfossils in artificial martian sedimentary meteorites during entry into Earth’s atmosphere: The STONE 6 experiment

If life ever appeared on Mars, could we find traces of primitive life embedded in sedimentary meteorites? To answer this question, a 3.5-byr-old volcanic sediment containing microfossils was embedded in the heat shield of a space capsule in order to test survival of the rock and the microfossils during entry into the Earth’s atmosphere (the STONE 6 experiment). The silicified volcanic sediment from the Kitty’s Gap Chert (Pilbara, Australia) is considered to be an excellent analogue for Noachian-age volcanic sediments. The microfossils in the chert are also analogues for potential martian life. An additional goal was to investigate the survival of living microorganisms (Chroococcidiopsis) protected by a 2-cm thick layer of rock in order to test whether living endolithic organisms could survive atmospheric entry when protected by a rocky coating.Mineralogical alteration of the sediment due to shock heating was manifested by the formation of a fusion crust, cracks in the chert due to prograde and retrograde changes of α quartz to β quartz, increase in the size of the fluid inclusions, and dewatering of the hydromuscovite-replaced volcanic protoliths. The carbonaceous microfossils embedded in the chert matrix survived in the rock away from the fusion crust but there was an increase in the maturity index of the kerogen towards the crust. We conclude that this kind of sediment can survive atmospheric entry and, if it contains microfossils, they could also survive. The living microorganisms were, however, completely carbonised by flame leakage to the back of the sample and therefore non-viable. However, using an analytical model to estimate the temperature reached within the sample thickness, we conclude that, even without flame leakage, the living organisms probably need to be protected by at least 5 cm of rock in order to be shielded from the intense heat of entry.     

The fresnel interferometric imager

The Fresnel Interferometric Imager has been proposed to the European Space Agency (ESA) Cosmic Vision plan as a class L mission. This mission addresses several themes of the CV Plan: Exoplanet study, Matter in extreme conditions, and The Universe taking shape. This paper is an abridged version of the original ESA proposal. We have removed most of the technical and financial issues, to concentrate on the instrumental design and astrophysical missions. The instrument proposed is an ultra-lightweight telescope, featuring a novel optical concept based on diffraction focussing. It yields high dynamic range images, while releasing constraints on positioning and manufacturing of the main optical elements. This concept should open the way to very large apertures in space. In this two spacecraft formation-flying instrument, one spacecraft holds the focussing element: the Fresnel interferometric array; the other spacecraft holds the field optics, focal instrumentation, and detectors. The Fresnel array proposed here is a 3.6 ×3.6 m square opaque foil punched with 10⁵ to 10⁶ void “subapertures”. Focusing is achieved with no other optical element: the shape and positioning of the subapertures (holes in the foil) is responsible for beam combining by diffraction, and 5% to 10% of the total incident light ends up into a sharp focus. The consequence of this high number of subapertures is high dynamic range images. In addition, as it uses only a combination of vacuum and opaque material, this focussing method is potentially efficient over a very broad wavelength domain. The focal length of such diffractive focussing devices is wavelength dependent. However, this can be corrected. We have tested optically the efficiency of the chromatism correction on artificial sources (500 < λ < 750 nm): the images are diffraction limited, and the dynamic range measured on an artificial double source reaches 6.2 10^− 6. We have also validated numerical simulation algorithms for larger Fresnel interferometric arrays. These simulations yield a dynamic range (rejection factor) close to 10^− 8 for arrays such as the 3.6 m one we propose. A dynamic range of 10^− 8 allows detection of objects at contrasts as high as than 10^− 9 in most of the field. The astrophysical applications cover many objects in the IR, visible an UV domains. Examples are presented, taking advantage of the high angular resolution and dynamic range capabilities of this concept.