Soil Carbon: Policy and Economics

Agricultural soils provide a prospective way of mitigating the increasing atmospheric concentration of CO₂. A number of agricultural practices are known to stimulate the accumulation of additional soil carbon and early indications are that some might sequester carbon at relatively modest costs with generally positive environmental effects. We discuss, under 10 themes, policy and economic issues that will determine whether programs for sequestration of carbon in agricultural soils can succeed. The issues involve contexts for implementation, economics, private property rights, agricultural policy, and institutional and social structures. Ultimately, success will depend on the incentive structure developed and the way in which carbon sequestration is integrated into the total fabric of agricultural policy.     

Phenomenon-based Specification of the Digital Representation of Terrain Surfaces

The phenomenon known as 'terrain' is a continuous surface. However, when a digital terrain representation is based on a regular raster (i.e. a DEM) the digital surface is commonly not continuous. This is the case for the derivation of variables such as slope, aspect, and curvature values as performed in today's Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Often, there is no surface specified at all, as, for instance, when flow lines or watersheds are constructed. The discrepancy between the phenomenon to be modelled and its digital representation causes the terrain analysis results to be less accurate than they could be. Furthermore, if more than one type of terrain information is derived the results are likely to be based on different specifications of the seemingly same terrain surface. The combined application of the derivation results will likely introduce inconsistencies. This paper suggests founding the specification of digital terrain representations on a careful analysis of the properties of the phenomenon. The paper details the reasons for, and advantages of, continuous surface representations and emphasises the importance of a comprehensive documentation of the conceptual models underlying digital terrain representations. A review of suitable interpolation approaches for the specification of terrain surfaces is given. The paper discusses how the resulting digital surfaces are analysed and how measurement uncertainty may be accounted for.     

Evolution of the trophic state of Lake Annecy (eastern France) since the last glaciation as indicated by iron, manganese and phosphorus speciation

Lake Annecy sediments have been studied to provide an insight into the evolution of the lake trophic state in response to climate changes during the Holocene. Determination of the concentration of carbonate, Fe, Mn, and different forms of P in conjunction with total sediment fluxes derived from ¹⁴C ages allows an estimation of yearly fluxes of these sediment components. High fluxes of endogenic carbonate occur during the early to middle Holocene. Non apatitic inorganic phosphorus flux is variable but shows some higher-than-present values during this period. These observations are interpreted as being a result of enhanced productivity by favourable conditions for phytoplankton development. In addition, the low Mn/Fe ratio of the redox-sensitive forms of these elements recorded during this period suggests low oxygen concentrations in the bottom waters. Therefore it appears that the lake may have undergone oxygen depletion in the bottom water during the warmer-than-present periods, due to increased productivity and subsequent oxygen consumption from the decay of organic matter. With future climate changes, this suggests that lake water quality may likely degrade under global warming.     

The geology of the Lega Dembi gold deposit, southern Ethiopia: implications for Pan-African gold exploration

The Lega Dembi deposit is the largest gold producer in Ethiopia. It is situated in late-Precambrian metamorphosed sediments of the N-S trending, volcano-sedimentary Megado belt, which forms part of the late-Proterozoic Adola granite-greenstone terrane in southern Ethiopia. The lode-gold mineralization occurs in a N-S trending, steep westerly dipping quartz-vein system that follows the structural contact between underlying feldspathic gneisses and the volcanosedimentary sequence of the Megado belt. This contact also marks the northernmost extension of the regional-scale, sinistral strike-slip Lega Dembi-Aflata shear zone. Mineralization and intense quartz-veining is best developed in graphite-rich sediments within an area not more than 80 m away from this tectonic contact. Hydrothermal wall-rock alteration includes actinolite/tremolite-biotite-calcite-sericite and chlorite-calcite-epidote assemblages. Gold occurs preferentially in the sericite alteration zone, where it is closely associated and intergrown with galena. The variable deformation of the gold-quartz veins suggests a syn-kinematic timing for the gold mineralization during transcurrent shearing in a dilational segment of the shear zone. In addition to the structural control, lithological control on gold deposition is indicated by the almost exclusive occurrence of the gold mineralization in graphite-rich metasediments. This close relationship suggests that gold precipitation was the result of chemical reduction of regional ore-bearing fluids. Temperature conditions of mineralization are constrained by the actinolite-biotite alteration assemblage and by arsenopyrite chemistry, which indicate that ore deposition occurred at or close to peak metamorphic conditions at upper-greenschist to lower-amphibolite metamorphic grades. Rb-Sr dating of sericite indicates an age of about 545 Ma. for hydrothermal alteration and, thus, for gold mineralization. The style of gold mineralization, structural pattern and lithological assemblages at Lega Dembi are very similar to lode-gold deposits most commonly reported from Archaean granite-greenstone terranes. These similarities may open new perspectives for the exploration of lode-gold deposits, which has previously primarily focused on Archaean greenstone belts rather than Proterozoic or even Phanerozoic meta-volcanosedimentary belts. Received: 26 July 1996 / Accepted: 8 January 1997     

Vorschläge zur statistischen Erfassung erdmagnetischer Mikropulsationen

Zusammenfassung Es werden einige Tatsachen und Bedingungen angeführt, welche eine physikalische Deutung der erdmagnetischen Mikropulsationen zu berücksichtigen hätte. Um ein weltweites Erfassen der Mikropulsationen und ihrer Variationen zu erleichtern, wird ein Klassifizierungsverfahren vorgeschlagen, mit dem Größe, Regelmäßigkeit, Andauer oder Abwesenheit von Wellenzügen halbquantitativ erfaßt und statistisch behandelt werden können. Nach diesem Verfahren werden augenblicklich die Registrierungen der Horizontalkomponente im argentinischen Observatorium Orcadas durchmustert. Als Beispiel zeigt Abb. 2 den Tagesgang des Auftretens von Mikropulsationen verschiedener Regelmäßigkeit im Januar 1933. Es besteht ein charakteristischer Unterschied gegenüber den bisher bekannten Gängen an anderen Observatorien. Weitere Beispiele beleuchten den Zusammenhang mit erdmagnetischer Aktivität und mit Bai-Störungen; es besteht Anlaß, eine inhibierende Wirkung der ionisierenden Wellenstrahlung der Sonne anzunehmen (Abb. 3).

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Summary Some facts and conditions are stated which are to be taken into account in any physical theory of geomagnetic micropulsations. For convenience in a world-wide survey of the micropulsations and their variations, a scheme of classification is suggested in which the magnitude, regularity, duration or absence of wave-trains are gauged in a semi-quantitative manner, as a first step for statistical discussion. The records of magnetic horizontal component from the Argentine South-Orkneys Observatory are now being searched for micropulsations in accordance with the procedure here suggested. As an illustration, Fig. 2 shows the daily variation of occurrence for micropulsations of different degrees of regularity during January, 1933. A significant difference is found between this daily variation and those known hitherto from other observatories. Further examples refer to relations with geomagnetic activity and bay-disturbances; there is some evidence of an inhibitory effect of ionizing solar wave-radiation (Fig. 3).

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Resumen Se enumeran algunos hechos y condiciones que habrá de tomar en cuenta cualquier interpretación física de las micropulsaciones geomagnéticas. Con el fin de posibilitar un censo global de este fenómeno y sus variaciones, se sugiere un prodedimiento para su clasificación, el cual permite hacer un relevamiento semi-cuantitativo de la magnitud, regularidad, permanencia o ausencia de los trenes de ondas, y tratarlas estadísticamento. Según este método, se está procediendo en la actualidad a escrutar los registros de la componente horizontal, recogidos en el observatorio argentino de las Islas Orcadas. Como ejemplo, la Fig. 2 muestra la marcha diaria de la ocurrencia de micropulsaciones con diferentes grados de regularidad, en enero de 1933. Existe una discrepancia característica con las marchas que hasta aqui se conocen de otros observatorios. Algunos ejemplos adicionales ilustran las relaciones con el grado de actividad geomagnética y con los disturbios del tipo bahía; cabe tambien suponer un efecto impeditivo de la radiación solar ionizante (Fig. 3).

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Résumé On énumère quelques faits et conditions dont devrait tenir compte une interprétation physique des micropulsations géomagnétiques. Dans le but de faciliter l'étude mondiale des micropulsations et de leurs variations, on propose un mode de classement embrassant la grandeur, la régularité, la durée ou l'absence de trains d'ondes sous forme semi-quantitative et qui permet leur étude statistique. C'est à l'aide de ce procédé que l'on a dépouillé actuellement les enregistrements de la composante horizontale à l'Observatoire argentin des Orcades du Sud. La fig. 2 est un exemple de la variation diurne de l'apparition de micropulsations plus ou moins régulières en janvier 1933; cette variation diffère d'une façon caractéristique de celles que l'on connaît jusqu'ici en d'autres observatoires. D'autres exemples illustrent la relation avec l'activité géomagnétique et avec les perturbations du type baie; il y a lieu d'admettre un effet inhibitif du rayonnement ondulatoire solaire ionisant (fig. 3).

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Mit 3 Textabbildungen.

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Veröffentlicht mit Erlaubnis der Dirección General del Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, Buenos Aires.     

Quantifying the impact of no-till on runoff in southern Brazil at hillslope and catchment scales

No-till (NT) is a conservation system that improves the hydrological regime of agricultural slopes by providing greater surface protection and benefits to the physical and hydrological properties of soils. However, the isolated use of NT is not enough to control runoff and its associated degradation processes. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the runoff of agricultural slopes under NT under different runoff control conditions by monitoring 63 rainfall events in two 2.4-ha zero-order catchments and 27 rainfall events in four 0.6-ha macroplots. The catchments are paired and similar in terms of the type of soil and relief, but different regarding the presence of terraces. The macroplots have different soil and crop management systems. By using monitoring techniques, the hyetographs and hydrographs revealed the influence of the different types of management on the catchments and macroplots and allowed rainfall characteristics, runoff volume, runoff coefficients, water infiltration, peak runoff, response times, and curve number to be analysed. The terraces positively affected the NT and controlled runoff and related variables, in addition to infiltration significantly increasing and runoff reducing in the terraced catchment. All the hydrological information assessed pointed to the positive effects provided by the presence of the terraces. The results in the macroplots showed that high amounts of phytomass and/or chiselling do not control runoff and its correlated variables in medium and high magnitude events. The study concludes by underlining the need for additional measures to control runoff (terraces), even in areas under NT and with high phytomass production. Additionally, the study emphasizes the importance of monitoring at the catchment scale to better understand the hydrological behaviour of agricultural areas and provide the necessary parameters to effectively control runoff.     

Application of micro-computed X-ray tomography for improving the hole erosion test analysis on high plastic clay

Acta Geotechnica - The hole erosion test (HET) was developed to simulate piping erosion and to study the erosion parameters of cohesive soils. The erosion rate in the HET is evaluated by the...