A multi-tracer approach to delineate groundwater dynamics in the Rio Actopan Basin,Veracruz State,Mexico

Geochemistry and environmental tracers were used to understand groundwater resources, recharge processes, and potential sources of contamination in the Rio Actopan Basin, Veracruz State, Mexico. Total dissolved solids are lower in wells and springs located in the basin uplands compared with those closer to the coast, likely associated with rock/water interaction. Geochemical results also indicate some saltwater intrusion near the coast and increased nitrate near urban centers. Stable isotopes show that precipitation is the source of recharge to the groundwater system. Interestingly, some high-elevation springs are more isotopically enriched than average annual precipitation at higher elevations, indicating preferential recharge during the drier but cooler winter months when evapotranspiration is reduced. In contrast, groundwater below 1,200 m elevation is more isotopically depleted than average precipitation, indicating recharge occurring at much higher elevation than the sampling site. Relatively cool recharge temperatures, derived from noble gas measurements at four sites (11–20 °C), also suggest higher elevation recharge. Environmental tracers indicate that groundwater residence time in the basin ranges from 12,000 years to modern. While this large range shows varying groundwater flowpaths and travel times, ages using different tracer methods (¹⁴C, ³H/³He, CFCs) were generally consistent. Comparing multiple tracers such as CFC-12 with CFC-113 indicates piston-flow to some discharge points, yet binary mixing of young and older groundwater at other points. In summary, groundwater within the Rio Actopan Basin watershed is relatively young (Holocene) and the majority of recharge occurs in the basin uplands and moves towards the coast.     

Groundwater flow in a transboundary fault-dominated aquifer and the importance of regional modeling: the case of the city of Querétaro,Mexico

The city of Querétaro, located near the political boundary of the Mexican states of Querétaro and Guanajuato, relies on groundwater as it sole water supply. Groundwater extraction in the city increased from 21?×?10⁶ m³/yr in 1970 to 104?×?10⁶ m³/yr in 2010, with an associated drawdown of 100 m in some parts of the aquifer. A three-dimensional numerical groundwater-flow model has been developed that represents the historical evolution of the aquifer’s potentiometric levels and is used to simulate the effect of two scenarios: (1) a 40 % reduction in the extraction rate from public water supply wells in early 2011 (thus reducing the extraction to 62?×?10⁶ m³/yr), and (2) a further reduction in 2021 to 1?×?10⁶ m³/yr. The modeling results project a temporary recovery of the potentiometric levels after the 40 % reduction of early 2011, but a return to 2010 levels by 2020. If scenario 2 is implemented in 2021, the aquifer will take nearly 30 years to recover to the simulated levels of 1995. The model also shows that the wells located in the city of Querétaro started to extract water from part of the aquifer beneath the State of Guanajuato in the late 1970s, thus showing that the administrative boundaries used in Mexico to study and develop water resources are inappropriate, and consideration should be given to physical boundaries instead. A regional approach to studying aquifers is needed in order to adequately understand groundwater flow dynamics.     

Linear discriminant analysis to describe the relationship between rainfall and landslides in Bogotá, Colombia

Bogotá is located in the central Andean region of Colombia, which is frequently affected by landslide processes. These processes are mostly triggered during the rainy season in the city. This fact remarks the importance of determining what rain-derived parameters (e.g. intensity, antecedent rain, daily rain) are better related with the occurrence of landslides. For this purpose, the linear discriminant analysis (LDA), a technique derived from multivariate statistics, was used. The application of this type of analysis led to obtain simple mathematical functions that represent the probability of occurrence of landslides in Bogotá. The functions also allow to identify the most relevant variables derived from records of rainfall linked to the generation of landslides. A proof of concept using the proposed methodology was done using historic rainfall data from a 9-km² area of homogenous climatology and geomorphology in the south part of Bogotá. Landslides needed to be grouped for the LDA. Each one of these grouping categories represents landslides that occurred in similar geomorphologic conditions. Another set of events with no landslides was generated synthetically. Results of the proof of concept show that rainfall parameters such as normalized rainfall intensity I _MAP, normalized daily rainfall R _MAP and rainy-days normal RDN have the best statistical correlation with the landslides observed in the zone of analysis.