Regional subsidence of Mexico City and its effects on seismic response

Changes expected in Mexico City's seismic response due to land subsidence caused by groundwater extraction are examined. Settlements of the land surface observed in the recent past are compiled and processed to predict regional subsidence in the near future. This information is used in combination with the iso-depth and iso-period maps stipulated by the building code to estimate the compaction of surface sediments and the shortening of soil periods. The time-progressive evolution of the official seismic zoning maps and the associated site-specific response spectra is predicted. The same is done with spectral response contours expressed in terms of the site and structure periods. The subsidence effects are considered through an impact factor, which represents the increase or decrease in the spectral ordinates with respect to the current values specified for design purposes. The detrimental or beneficial effects depend on the relative values of the structure and site periods.     

Combined effects of groundwater and aeolian processes in the formation of the northernmost closed saline depressions of Europe: north-east Spain

A genetic and evolutionary model is established for saline depressions in continental areas. These depressions are located in arid or subarid areas, and are developed on low permeability geological mediums (K<10 mm/day) with a lack of streams reaching the small lakes. The phenomenon of evaporation is fundamental, since it is the basic requirement for the presence or absence of a free water surface in the lake, and also for depression of the phreatic surface, which causes inflow of groundwater towards the lake. With these conditions, the proposed model includes the following stages: (i) initiation of the close depression; (ii) deepening of the depression; (iii) formation of the lake basin and the end of the deepening; and (iv) levelling and lateral extension of the lake basin. The combined effects of groundwater flows and aeolian action offer a coherent explanation for the origin and evolution both of the closed depressions found in the Ebro Valley, and of the salt lakes that subsequently form. The processes described form morphologies of oval shape with the main axis parallel to the direction of the wind, flat floors and evaporitic sedimentation, although they act on geological materials with different lithologies. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Origin of quartz geodes from Laño and Tubilla del Agua sections (middle–upper Campanian,Basque‐Cantabrian Basin,northern Spain): isotopic differences during diagenetic processes

Quartz geodes and nodular chert have been found within middle–upper Campanian carbonate sediments from the Laño and Tubilla del Agua sections of the Basque‐Cantabrian Basin, northern Spain. The morphology of geodes together with the presence of anhydrite laths included in megaquartz crystals and spherulitic fibrous quartz (quartzine‐lutecite), suggest an origin from previous anhydrite nodules. The anhydrite nodules at Laño were produced by the percolation of marine brines, during a period corresponding to a sedimentary gap, with δ³⁴S and δ¹⁸O mean values of 18.8‰ and 13.6‰ respectively, consistent with Upper Cretaceous seawater sulphate values. Higher δ³⁴S and δ¹⁸O mean values of 21.2‰ and 21.8‰ recorded in the Tubilla del Agua section are interpreted as being due to a partial bacterial sulphate reduction process in a more restricted marine environment. The idea that sulphates may have originated from the leaching of previously deposited Keuper sulphate evaporites with subsequent precipitation as anhydrite, is rejected because the δ³⁴S, δ¹⁸O and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values of anhydrite laths observed at both the Tubilla del Agua and Laño sections suggest an origin from younger marine brines. Later calcite replacement and precipitation of geode‐filling calcite is recorded in both sections, with δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values indicating the participation of meteoric waters. Synsedimentary activity of the Peñacerrada diapir, which lies close to the Laño section, played a significant role in the local shallowing of the basin and the formation of quartz geodes. In contrast, eustatic shallowing of the inner marine series of the Tubilla del Agua section led to the generation of morphologically similar quartz geodes. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Long-term Callovian–Oxfordian sea-level changes and sedimentation in the Iberian carbonate platform (Jurassic, Spain): possible eustatic implications

Facies analysis across the carbonate platform developed during the Callovian–Oxfordian in the northern Iberian basin (Jurassic, Northeast Spain) is used to characterize successive stages of sedimentary evolution, including palaeoenvironmental reconstructions showing the distribution of a wide spectrum of facies, from ferruginous oolitic, peloidal, spongiolithic to intraclastic. The studied successions consist of two long‐term transgressive–regressive cycles bounded by a major unconformity with a major gap, comprising at least the upper Lamberti (Callovian) and Mariae (Oxfordian) Zones. Major transgressive peaks of these two cycles occurred at the end of the Early Callovian (late Gracilis Zone) and at the end of the Middle Oxfordian. The Callovian and Oxfordian successions were further divided into three and seven higher frequency cycles, respectively. The modelling of two sections (i.e. Ricla and Tosos) located 40 km apart in the more subsident open platform areas, allows the reconstruction of two curves showing a similar evolution of long‐term sea‐level changes that are in theory eustatic, though subject to uncertainties derived form the assumptions required for their construction. The changes affecting the northern Iberian basin seem to reflect nearly homogeneous subsidence (rates around 2 cm kyr^?1) combined with possible eustatic changes including an Early Callovian rise, a fall at the middle Callovian–earliest Oxfordian (i.e. the Anceps–Mariae Zones), with average long‐term rates around 2 cm kyr^?1 (total fall of 40–60 m), a period of lowstand at the Early–Middle Oxfordian transition and a long‐term rise at the Middle–Late Oxfordian transition (Transversarium and Bifurcatus Zones). Facies distribution across the Iberian platform indicates a progressive Middle–Late Callovian relative sea‐level fall rather than a rapid relative sea‐level fall at the end of the Callovian. After this falling episode, the progressive onlap over the swell areas during the Early Oxfordian and at the beginning of the Middle Oxfordian indicates a period of accommodation gain, which is explained by the combined effects of continuous subsidence across the platform and reduced sedimentation rates in spite of the possible eustatic lowstand. Eustatic lowstand, combined with other factors (ocean water circulation, volcanism) could help to explain the loss of carbonate production during the latest Callovian–Early Oxfordian, previous to the widespread eustatic rise and warning recorded at the onset of the Transversarium Zone (Middle Oxfordian).     

Amplified hazard of small-volume monogenetic eruptions due to environmental controls, Orakei Basin, Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand

Orakei maar and tuff ring in the Auckland Volcanic Field is an example of a basaltic volcano in which the style and impacts of the eruption of a small volume of magma were modulated by a fine balance between magma flux and groundwater availability. These conditions were optimised by the pre-85?ka eruption being hosted in a zone of fractured and variably permeable Plio-Pleistocene mudstones and sandstones. Orakei maar represents an end-member in the spectrum of short-lived basaltic volcanoes, where substrate conditions rather than the magmatic volatile content was the dominant factor controlling explosivity and eruption styles. The eruption excavated a crater ?80?m deep that was subsequently filled by slumped crater wall material, followed by lacustrine and marine sediments. The explosion crater may have been less than 800?m in diameter, but wall collapse and wave erosion has left a 1,000-m-diameter roughly circular basin. A tuff ring around part of the maar comprises dominantly base surge deposits, along with subordinate fall units. Grain size, texture and shape characteristics indicate a strong influence of magma–water and magma–mud interactions that controlled explosivity throughout the eruption, but also an ongoing secondary role of magmatic gas-driven expansion and fragmentation. The tuff contains >70?% of material recycled from the underlying Plio-Pliestocene sediments, which is strongly predominant in the >2 ? fraction. The magmatic clasts are evolved alkali basalt, consistent with the eruption of a very small batch of magma. The environmental impact of this eruption was disproportionally large, when considering the low volume of magma involved (DRE?<?0.003?km³). Hence, this eruption exemplifies one of the worst-case scenarios for an eruption within the densely populated Auckland City, destroying an area of ~3?km² by crater formation and base surge impact. An equivalent scenario for the same magma conditions without groundwater interaction would yield a scoria/spatter cone with a diameter of 400–550?m, destroying less than a tenth of the area affected by the Orakei event.     

Uncertainty analysis along the ecological quality status of water bodies: the response of the Posidonia oceanica multivariate index (POMI) in three Mediterranean regions

Uncertainty analyses allow the identification and quantification of the factors that contribute to the potential misclassification of the ecological status of water bodies, helping to improve the sampling design used in monitoring. Here we used a Posidonia oceanica multivariate index (POMI) bio-monitoring dataset covering a total of 81 sites distributed throughout 28 water bodies from the coast of Catalonia, Balearic Islands and Croatia to determine the levels of uncertainty associated with each region and how they change according to the quality status of water bodies. Overall, variability among sites (meadows) within water bodies was the factor that generated the greatest risk of misclassification among the three regions, within which the Balearic Islands had the lowest uncertainty, followed by Croatia and Catalonia. When water bodies classified in good/high quality were separated from those in moderate/poor status classes, we found that the latter displayed higher levels of uncertainty than the former.     

New discoveries of mud volcanoes on the Moroccan Atlantic continental margin (Gulf of Cádiz): morpho-structural characterization

During the MVSEIS-08 cruise of 2008, ten new mud volcanoes (MVs) were discovered on the offshore Moroccan continental margin (Gulf of Cádiz) at water depths between 750 and 1,600?m, using multibeam bathymetry, backscatter imagery, high-resolution seismic and gravity core data. Mud breccias were recovered in all cases, attesting to the nature of extrusion of these cones. The mud volcanoes are located in two fields: the MVSEIS, Moundforce, Pixie, Las Negras, Madrid, Guadix, Almanzor and El Cid MVs in the western Moroccan field, where mud volcanoes have long been suspected but to date not identified, and the Boabdil and Al Gacel MVs in the middle Moroccan field. Three main morphologies were observed: asymmetric, sub-circular and flat-topped cone-shaped types, this being the first report of asymmetric morphologies in the Gulf of Cádiz. Based on morpho-structural analysis, the features are interpreted to result from (1) repeated constructive (expulsion of fluid mud mixtures) and destructive (gravity-induced collapse and submarine landsliding) episodes and (2) interaction with bottom currents.     

Driving factors for forest fire occurrence in Durango State of Mexico: A geospatial perspective

Forest fire is one of the major causes of forest loss and therefore one of the main constraints for sustainable forest management worldwide. Identifying the driving factors and understanding the contribution of each factor are essential for the management of forest fire occurrence. The objective of this study is to identify variables that are spatially related to the occurrence and incidence of the forest fire in the State of Durango, Mexico. For this purpose, data from forest fire records for a five-year period were analyzed. The spatial correlations between forest fire occurrence and intensity of land use, susceptibility of vegetation, temperature, precipitation and slope were tested by Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) method, under an Ordinary Least Square estimator. Results show that the spatial pattern of the forest fire in the study area is closely correlated with the intensity of land use, and land use change is one of the main explanatory variables. In addition, vegetation type and precipitation are also the main driving factors. The fitting model indicates obvious link between the variables. Forest fire was found to be the consequence of a particular combination of the environmental factors, and when these factors coexist with human activities, there is high probability of forest fire occurrence. Mandatory regulation of human activities is a key strategy for forest fire prevention.     

Accuracy assessment of the GPS-based slant total electron content

The main scope of this research is to assess the ultimate accuracy that can be achieved for the slant total electron content (sTEC) estimated from dual-frequency global positioning system (GPS) observations which depends, primarily, on the calibration of the inter-frequency biases (IFB). Two different calibration approaches are analyzed: the so-called satellite-by-satellite one, which involves levelling the carrier-phase to the code-delay GPS observations and then the IFB estimation; and the so-called arc-by-arc one, which avoids the use of code-delay observations but requires the estimation of arc-dependent biases. Two strategies are used for the analysis: the first one compares calibrated sTEC from two co-located GPS receivers that serve to assess the levelling errors; and the second one, assesses the model error using synthetic data free of calibration error, produced with a specially developed technique. The results show that the arc-by-arc calibration technique performs better than the satellite-by-satellite one for mid-latitudes, while the opposite happens for low-latitudes.