The evolution of conservation rules and norms in the Maine lobster industry

Natural resources of all kinds have been overexploited by user groups who cannot or will not develop rules to constrain their own exploitive efforts. One notable exception is the Maine lobster industry, where an effective set of conservation laws has been developed due, in great part, to the strong support of the industry. In the early decades of the 20th century, however, the lobster industry was marked by widespread violations of the existing conservation laws and opposition to developing more. This article explores the way that the pirate ethic gave way to the conservation ethic in the 1930s. Our explorations in evolutionary game theory suggest that this change was produced by three factors: costs and benefits of defection from the conservation ethic; numbers of people accepting the conservation ethic quality rule; and events that shocked the system from one state to another. We argue that the shock to the system in the late 1920s and 1930s was caused by massive stock failure which changed the attitudes of many fishermen about the need for conservation. People began to report violations of the law, which made law enforcement more effective and quickly led to a cascade of fishermen abandoning the pirate ethic. In the late 1930s, increasing catches, in combination with a number of other social, technical, and economic factors continued the upward spiral.     

Intra-plate deformation in west-central Europe

The central part of Europe north of the alpine orogenic belt is generally seen as a relatively stable area of the western tip of the Eurasian plate. Indeed, up to now, no geodetically significant motions have been detected although an active rift system running roughly in SSE–NNW direction along the Rhine valley could have some effect on the stability of this region. Presently, the increasing accuracy of geodetic point motions should allow the study of small motions at levels down to nearly 0.1 mm/yr. We start our investigation with a closer look at the ‘true’ accuracy and significance of GPS derived point velocities of permanent stations. We compare and discuss the different levels of formal errors obtained by the three analysis centers considered in this study (EPN, JPL and SOPAC) and present additional ways of assessing the accuracy using the redundancy offered by different independent analyses and multiple systems operating at one site. On the average, all results indicate that a one-sigma level of ±0.3 mm/yr can be seen as a conservative estimate for the horizontal accuracy of point motions in central Europe. On the basis of this assumption we find that at present, the actual velocity field as determined by different analysis groups and centers does not show any significant east–west extensional deformation. We do however see a prominent north–south compressional velocity gradient of about 1 mm/yr/1000 km (1 nanostrain/yr) which could be associated with the Alpine thrust in conjunction with a south-directed horizontal component of the Fennoscandian Glacial Isostatic Adjustment.     

Passive microwave remote sensing of the historic February 2010 snowstorms in the Middle Atlantic region of the USA

The snowfall in the Baltimore/Washington metropolitan area during the winter of 2009/2010 was unprecedented and caused serious snow‐related disruptions. In February 2010, snowfall totals approached 2 m, and because maximum temperatures were consistently below normal, snow remained on the ground the entire month. One of the biggest contributing factors to the unusually severe winter weather in 2009/2010, throughout much of the middle latitudes, was the Arctic Oscillation. Unusually high pressure at high latitudes and low pressure at middle latitudes forced a persistent exchange of mass from north to south. In this investigation, a concerted effort was made to link remotely sensed falling snow observations to remotely sensed snow cover and snowpack observations in the Baltimore/Washington area. Specifically, the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer onboard the Aqua satellite was used to assess snow water equivalent, and the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit‐B and Microwave Humidity Sounder were employed to detect falling snow. Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer passive microwave signatures in this study are related to both snow on the ground and surface ice layers. In regard to falling snow, signatures indicative of snowfall can be observed in high frequency brightness temperatures of Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit‐B and Microwave Humidity Sounder. Indeed, retrievals show an increase in snow water equivalent after the detection of falling snow. Yet, this work also shows that falling snow intensity and/or the presence of liquid water clouds impacts the ability to reliably detect snow water equivalent. Moreover, changes in the condition of the snowpack, especially in the surface features, negatively affect retrieval performance. Copyright © 2011. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.     

The economics of the marine sector: general equilibrium and ecological analysis

Recent transfers of potential marine wealth to coastal states, resulting from the Third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, have enhanced our awareness that the marine sector might ultimately prove to be a new frontier. The objective of this paper is to initiate work toward the development of a systematic appraoch to the economics of this sector. To this end, the marine sector is assumed to be the fourth factor of production, taking its place with the traditional trio of land, capital and labor. The productivity of this sector is described and analyzed with the aid of a simple general equilibrium model.     

Megacryst-bulk rock isotopic disequilibrium as an indicator of contamination processes: The Edgecumbe Volcanic Field,SE Alaska

Sr and Nd isotopic ratios are reported from mineral separates and bulk rock samples from the Edgecumbe Volcanic Field in southeast Alaska, a suite of lavas that has developed by assimilation. Megacrysts in the basaltic unit and the rhyodacites are in isotopic equilibrium with their matrices. Because the rhyodacites developed as the result of assimilation, the assimilate must have been completely dissolved. In contrast, megacrysts in the two andesitic units are in isotopic disequilibrium with their matrix. These megacrysts must be a mixture of those inherited from the contaminant, crystals in equilibrium with the groundmass, and possibly crystals inherited from a mafic liquid.     

27Al, 29Si,and 23Na MAS NMR study of an Al,Si ordered alkali feldspar solid solution series

Solid-state ²⁷Al, ²⁹Si and ²³Na MAS NMR spectra have been obtained for an Al,Si ordered low albite to low microcline ion exchange series for which unit-cell parameters and ²⁹Si NMR data have previously been reported. ²⁷Al δ_i vary continuously with composition from 63.4 (±0.5) ppm for albite to 58.9 (±0.5) ppm for microcline, and parallel the ²⁹Si chemical shifts assigned to the T2m-site. The ²⁷Al and ²⁹Si chemical shifts for this series correlate well with composition-dependent lattice parameters, most notably cell volume and the angle [201]¹b. The linewidths of the ²⁹Si and ²⁷Al resonances indicate a significant amount of structural disorder in the intermediate compositions due to Na, K substitution. The 1 σ width of the distribution of average Si-O-T angles for each T-site is estimated to be about 1° for the Or33 sample. The average ²³Na δ_i varies monotonically from -8.5 (±1) ppm for albite to -24.3 (±1)ppm for Or83. Similarly, the average ²³Na nuclear quadrupole coupling constant decreases from 2.60 to 1.15 (±0.05) MHz and the asymmetry parameter of the electric field gradient increases from 0.25 to 0.6 with increasing K-content from albite to Or83. The observed variations in the quadrupole coupling parameters are consistent with simple electrostatic calculations. Higher resolution ²³Na spectra of the intermediate compositions obtained at 11.7 T indicate the presence of an inhomogeneous linebroadening which is related to the distribution of Na-environments. A model based on a random distribution of local compositions does not simulate the spectra, suggesting that the distribution of Na is skewed toward Na-rich clusters. Observation of the ²³Na NMR lineshape of Or49 after short periods of heat treatment indicate that ²³Na NMR is very sensitive to the changes in the Na, K distribution accompanying the early stages of exsolution. Reversible changes occur after heating at 530° C for 3 h, whereas heating at 600° C produces no changes, possibly bracketing the position of the coherent spinodal for Al, Si ordered alkali feldspars at this composition.     

Advances in modelling of snowpack processes utilizing remote sensing technology

Application of models over large areas requires enormous amounts of point data which are seldom available. As a result, the use of remote sensing to acquire data for these models becomes a practical alternative because from space areal measurements can be made over entire regions. Remote sensing data sets of snow are being studied and refined for input into energy balance, hydrological, and general circulation models. Snow influences the amount of solar energy retained and returned to space, the utilization of radiant energy in the hydrological cycle, and the atmospheric circulation by interacting with and modifying air masses. The continually evolving remote sensing technology will be used to provide a better understanding of how snow cover influences global climate and a better fundamental understanding of snow accumulation and ablation processes.     

Uranium in Holocene valley-fill sediments,and uranium,radon, and helium in waters,Lake Tahoe—Carson Range area,Nevada and California,U.S.A.

Uraniferous Holocene sediments occur in the Carson Range of Nevada and California, U.S.A., between Lake Tahoe and Carson Valley. The hosts for the uranium include peat and interbedded organic-rich sand, silt, and mud that underly valley floors, fens, and marshes along stream valleys between the crest of the range and the edge of Lake Tahoe. The known uranium accumulations extend along the Carson Range from the area just southeast of South Lake Tahoe northward to the area just east of Carson City; however, they almost certainly continue beyond the study area to the north, west, and south. Due to the young age of the accumulations, uranium in them is in gross disequilibrium with its highly radioactive daughter products. These accumulations have thus escaped discovery with radiation detection equipment in the past. The uranium content of these sediments approaches 0.6 percent; however, the average is in the range of 300–500 ppm. Waters associated with these sediments locally contain as much as 177 ppb uranium. Modest levels of helium and radon also occur in these waters.Uraniferous waters are clearly entering the private and public water supply systems in some parts of the study area; however, it is not known how much uranium is reaching users of these water supplies. Many of the waters sampled in the study area exceed the published health effects guidance level of the Environmental Protection Agency. Regulatory standards for uranium in waters have not been published, however.Much uranium is stored in the sediments along these stream valleys. Estimates for a marsh and a fen along one drainage are 24,000 and 15,000 kg, respectively. The potential effects of man-induced environmental changes on the uranium are uncertain. Laboratory studies of uraniferous sediment rich in organic matter may allow us to evaluate the potential of liberating uranium from such sediments and creating transient increases in the level of uranium moving in water in the natural environment.