Exploration of the extension of two lava tubes,faults and dikes using very low frequency-electromagnetic technique in NE Jordan

The very low frequency-electromagnetic (VLF-EM) technique was used to delineate two sub-parallel lava tubes, faults and dikes in Umm El-Quttein area, NE Jordan. The investigation of the lava tubes was conducted through 22 VLF-EM profiles across lava strike; the length of profiles ranged from 700 to 1700 m. The lava tubes outcrop at two sites: Azzam cave and Al-Howa tunnel, characterized by slightly weathered basalt, columnar joints and fissure zones; qualitative interpretation of Fraser and Karous-Hjelt maps differentiate those zones as linear, elongated and circular anomalous zones. The 2-D tipper inversion of VLF-EM data and resistivity imaging had the potential to screen out three anomalous zones of likely resistivity contrast: the lava tube body with resistivity over 2500 Θ·m, the fractured zones with resistivity less than 500 Θ·m, and the host vesicular basalt with resistivity of 1500 Θ·m. The strike of lava tubes varied from SW to NE direction with depth less than 20 m and width from 10 to 30 m.     

Seismic ground amplification induced by box-shaped tunnels

The growing use of underground structures, specifically to facilitate urban transportation, highlights the need to scrutinize the effects of such spaces on the seismic ground response as well as the surrounding buildings. In this regard, the seismic ground amplification variations in the vicinity of single and twin box-shaped tunnels subjected to SV waves have been investigated by the finite difference method. To evaluate the effects, generalizable dimensionless diagrams based on the results of parametric numerical analysis considering factors such as variations in the tunnels’ depth, the distances between the tunnels, tunnel lining flexibility, and input wave frequency, have been presented. In addition, to assess the effects of underground box-shaped tunnels on the response spectrum of the ground surface, seven selected accelerograms have been matched based on a specific design spectrum for the stiff soil condition of Eurocode 8 (CEN, 2006). The results underline the significant amplification effect of the box-shaped tunnels on the ground motions, specifically in the case of horizontal twin tunnels, which should be given more attention in current seismic design practices for surface structures.

     

Viscosity of the moon

Using data from the present gravitational potential and surface topography of the Moon, it is possible to determine a lower limit of about 5 b.y. for the relaxation time of the mascons. Assuming that the Moon has behaved as a Maxwellian viscoelastic body since the formation of the mascons, this relaxation time indicates a value of about 10²⁷ poise for the viscosity of the lunar interior. Such a high viscosity implies that there has been no convection current inside the upper 800 km of the Moon since the formation of the mascons. Lunar Science Institute Contribution No. 99. The research in this paper was done while the author was a Visiting Scientist at the Lunar Science Institute, which is operated by the Universities Space Research Association under Contract No. NSR 09-051-001 with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.     

Evaluation of ecotourism potential in the northern coastline of the Persian Gulf

This research has identified areas located in the northern coastline of the Persian Gulf in the south of Iran, as strategic and ecological sites, based on tourism potential assessing criteria. To this end coastal limits were identified by satellite imagery in terms of shorelines and the maximum extent of water approach into the land and taking into consideration the characteristics of the nearby coastal villages. The studied region was then compared to similar international criteria and experiences. The original criteria were then divided into three main and four sub criteria. The Kangan region was found to have a potential for tourism industry according to the mentioned criteria. Naiband Gulf with a score of 20 was ranked first followed by Asalouyeh with a score of 18 and finally Taheri and Kangan Ports with scores of 16 and 15, respectively. With a high tourism industry potential in the studied region the necessity of ecotourism quality enhancement and environmental management planning for the northern shoreline of the Persian Gulf becomes of vital importance.     

Energy partitioning during seismic slip in pseudotachylyte-bearing faults (Gole Larghe Fault, Adamello, Italy)

The determination of the earthquake energy budget remains a challenging issue for Earth scientists, as understanding the partitioning of energy is a key towards the understanding the physics of earthquakes. Here we estimate the partition of the mechanical work density into heat and surface energy (energy required to create new fracture surface) during seismic slip on a location along a fault. Earthquake energy partitioning is determined from field and microstructural analyses of a fault segment decorated by pseudotachylyte (solidified friction-induced melt produced during seismic slip) exhumed from a depth of ~ 10 km—typical for earthquake hypocenters in the continental crust. Frictional heat per unit fault area estimated from the thickness of pseudotachylytes is ~ 27 MJ m^− 2. Surface energy, estimated from microcrack density inside clast (i.e., cracked grains) entrapped in the pseudotachylyte and in the fault wall rock, ranges between 0.10 and 0.85 MJ m^− 2. Our estimates for the studied fault segment suggest that ~ 97–99% of the energy was dissipated as heat during seismic slip. We conclude that at 10 km depth, less than 3% of the total mechanical work density is adsorbed as surface energy on the fault plane during earthquake rupture.     

Classification of Satellite Images in Assessing Urban Land Use Change Using Scale Optimization in Object-Oriented Processes (A Case Study: Ardabil City,Iran)

By using satellite imagery, the recognition and evaluation of various phenomena and extraction of information necessary for the planning of land resources or other purposes are easily accomplished. The purpose of this study is to compare the efficiency of seven commonly used methods of monitored classification of satellite data to evaluate land use changes using TM and OLI Landsat, IRS, Spot5 and Quick Bird bands as well as different color combinations of these images to detect agricultural land, residential areas and aquatic areas using object-oriented processing. Digital processing of satellite images was carried out in 1998 and 2016 using advanced methods. Training samples were extracted in five user classes by eCognition software using segmentation scale optimization, different color combinations and coefficients of shape and compression. The appropriate segmentation scale for arable land, human complications and the blue areas were, respectively, 50, 8 and 10. Then each image was classified separately using seven methods and extracted samples, and efficiency of each classification method was obtained by calculating two general health and Kappa coefficients. The results show that the accuracy of each classification method and the neural network with a total accuracy of 94.475 and Kappa coefficient of 92.095 were selected as the most accurate classification method. These results show that the sampling of educational samples with proper precision of the classes in the images and dependency probability of each satellite images pixel can be useful in classifying group available in helpful area.     

A Morphological Approach to Predicting Urban Expansion

Many methods for modeling urban expansion are available. Most of these computational models demand a variety of large‐scale environmental and socio‐economic data to investigate the relationship between urban expansion and its driving forces. These requirements are not always fulfilled, particularly in developing countries due to a lack of data availability. This necessitates methods not suffering from data limitations to ease their application. Consequently, this research presents a morphological approach for predicting urban expansion on the basis of spatiotemporal dynamics of urban margins by investigating the interior metropolitan area of Tehran, Iran as a case study. To assess the model's performance, urban expansion is monitored from 1976 to 2012. The proposed model is evaluated to ensure that the prediction performance for the year 2012 is acceptable. For the year 2024, the model predicts Tehran's urban expansion at an overall R² of 88%. Accordingly, it is concluded that: (1) although this approach only inputs urban margins, it represents a suitable and easy‐to‐use urban expansion model; and (2) urban planners are faced with continuing urban expansion.     

Application of Fuzzy Set Theory to Rock Engineering Classification Systems: An Illustration of the Rock Mass Excavability Index

The characterization of rock masses is one of the integral aspects of rock engineering. Over the years, many classification systems have been developed for characterization and design purposes in mining and civil engineering practices. However, the strength and weak points of such rating-based classifications have always been questionable. Such classification systems assign quantifiable values to predefined classified geotechnical parameters of rock mass. This results in subjective uncertainties, leading to the misuse of such classifications in practical applications. Fuzzy set theory is an effective tool to overcome such uncertainties by using membership functions and an inference system. This study illustrates the potential application of fuzzy set theory in assisting engineers in the rock engineering decision processes for which subjectivity plays an important role. So, the basic principles of fuzzy set theory are described and then it was applied to rock mass excavability (RME) classification to verify the applicability of fuzzy rock engineering classifications. It was concluded that fuzzy set theory has an acceptable reliability to be employed for all rock engineering classification systems.     

The Cimmerian Orogeny in northern Iran: tectono-stratigraphic evidence from the foreland

From the Permian onwards, the Gondwana-derived Iran Plate drifted northward to collide with Eurasia in the Late Triassic, thereby closing the Palaeotethys. This Eo-Cimmerian Orogeny formed the Cimmeride fold-and-thrust belt. The Upper Triassic–Middle Jurassic Shemshak Group of northern Iran is commonly regarded as the Cimmerian foreland molasse. However, our tectono-stratigraphic analysis of the Shemshak Group resulted in a revised and precisely dated model for the Triassic–Jurassic geodynamic evolution of the Iran Plate: initial Cimmerian collision started in the Carnian with subsequent Late Triassic synorogenic peripheral foreland deposition (flysch, lower Shemshak Group). Subduction shifted south in the Norian (onset of Neotethys subduction below Iran) and slab break-off around the Triassic–Jurassic boundary caused rapid uplift of the Cimmerides followed by Liassic post-orogenic molasse (middle Shemshak Group). During the Toarcian–Aalenian (upper Shemshak Group), Neotethys back-arc rifting formed a deep-marine basin, which developed into the oceanic South Caspian Basin during the Late Bajocian–Late Jurassic.     

Sensor modeling,self-calibration and accuracy testing of panoramic cameras and laser scanners

Terrestrial Linear Array CCD-based panoramic cameras have been used for purely imaging purposes, but they also have a high potential for use in high accuracy measurement applications. The imaging geometry and the high information content of those images make them suitable candidates for quantitative image analysis. For that a particular sensor model has to be established and the inherent accuracy potential has to be investigated. We developed a sensor model for terrestrial Linear Array-based panoramic cameras by means of a modified bundle adjustment with additional parameters, which models substantial deviations of a real camera from the ideal one. We used 3D straight-line information in addition to tie points to conduct a full calibration and orientation without control point information. Due to the similarity of the operation of laser scanners to panoramic cameras the sensor model of the panoramic cameras was extended for the self-calibration of laser scanners. We present the joint sensor model for panoramic cameras and laser scanners and the results of self-calibration, which indicate a subpixel accuracy level for such highly dynamic systems. Finally we demonstrate the systems’ accuracy of two typical panoramic cameras in 3D point positioning, using both a minimal number of control points and a free network adjustment. With these new panoramic imaging devices we have additional powerful sensors for image recording and efficient 3D object modeling.