Analytical and numerical models to explain steady rates of spring flow

Flow from some springs in former glacial lakebeds of the Upper Midwest is extremely steady throughout the year and does not increase significantly after precipitation events or seasonal recharge. Analytical and simplified numerical models of spring systems were used to determine whether preferential ground water flow through high-permeability features in shallow sandstone aquifers could produce typical values of spring discharge and the unusually steady rates of spring flow. The analytical model is based on a one-dimensional solution for periodic ground water flow. Solutions to this model suggest that it is unlikely that a periodic forcing due to seasonal variations in areal recharge would propagate to springs in a setting where high-permeability features exist. The analytical model shows that the effective length of the aquifer, or the length of flowpaths to a spring, and the total transmissivity of the aquifer have the greatest potential to impact the nature of spring flow in this setting. The numerical models show that high-permeability features can influence the magnitude of spring flow and the results demonstrate that the lengths of ground water flowpaths increase when high-permeability features are explicitly modeled, thus decreasing the likelihood for temporal variations in spring flow.     

Changes in zooxanthellae density,morphology, and mitotic index in hermatypic corals and anemones exposed to cyanide

Sodium cyanide (NaCN) is widely used for the capture of reef fish throughout Southeast Asia and causes extensive fish mortality, but the effect of NaCN on reef corals remains debated. To document the impact of cyanide exposure on corals, the species Acropora millepora, Goniopora sp., Favites abdita, Trachyphyllia geoffrio, Plerogyra sp., Heliofungia actinformis, Euphyllia divisa, and Scarophyton sp., and the sea anemone Aiptasia pallida were exposed to varying concentrations of cyanide for varying time periods. Corals were exposed to 50, 100, 300, and 600 mg/l of cyanide ion (CN(-)) for 1-2 min (in seawater, the CN(-) forms hydrocyanic acid). These concentrations are much lower than those reportedly used by fish collectors. Exposed corals and anemones immediately retracted their tentacles and mesenterial filaments, and discharged copious amounts of mucus containing zooxanthellae. Gel electrophoreses techniques found changes in protein expression in both zooxanthellae and host tissue. Corals and anemones exposed to cyanide showed an immediate increase in mitotic cell division of their zooxenthellae, and a decrease in zooxanthellae density. In contrast, zooxanthellae cell division and density remained constant in controls. Histopathological changes included gastrodermal disruption, mesogleal degradation, and increased mucus in coral tissues. Zooxanthellae showed pigment loss, swelling, and deformation. Mortality occurred at all exposure levels. Exposed specimens experienced an increase in the ratio of gram-negative to gram-positive bacteria on the coral surface. The results demonstrate that exposure cyanide causes mortality to corals and anemones, even when applied at lower levels than that used by fish collectors. Even brief exposure to cyanide caused slow-acting and long-term damage to corals and their zooxanthellae.     

Assessment of the aesthetic quality of a selection of beaches in the Firth of Forth,Scotland

The aesthetic quality of fourteen beaches in the Firth of Forth, Scotland was surveyed between May and July 2002 using a protocol designed by the UK's National Aquatic Litter Group (NALG). Local authority beach cleaning regimes influence the amount of litter found on beaches. Frequent and thorough beach cleaning is necessary to maintain high aesthetic standards. Bathing and amenity beaches achieved higher aesthetic quality than non-bathing and non-amenity beaches. The aesthetic quality of rural and urban beaches was very similar. The NALG protocol appears more complicated to use than other beach litter surveys. However, the classification system generates results that are easily interpreted by the general public. Furthermore, the NALG protocol could be combined with coastal zone management plans as a useful environmental performance indicator.     

中国及邻区震源机制解的分区特征

利用《中国大陆地壳应力环境基础数据库》收录的中国及邻区2660个地震震源机制解资料(数据截止到2003年底),在分析中国及邻区震源机制解及其分布特征的基础上,重点分析探讨了中国境内6级以上地震的震源机制解的分区特征:东北-华北应力区震源机制解水平最大主应力的优势分布方位为近EW向和NEE向,震源机制解类型相对较为单一,以走滑型为主。华南应力区水平最大主应力的优势分布方位为NW-SE向,震源机制解类型主要是逆断型和走滑型。新疆应力区水平最大主应力的优势分布方位为近SN向,类型也主要是逆断型和走滑型。在青藏高原南部应力区,震源机制解水平最大主应力方位的分布相对比较集中,优势方位为近SN向,类型基本上只有走滑型和正断型2类。而在青藏高原北部及北东边缘应力区,水平最大主应力方位变化较大,震源机制解类型以走滑型为主,同时还有一定数量的正断型和逆断型震源机制解     

岩石层应力场的起源（一）

构造应力场是地质学一项很重要的研究内容，因为它是记录岩石层动力过程的一个重要因素。在阐述现今岩石层应力状态的起因时，我们利用有关地球岩石层的有限元模型来计算地幔流动、地壳非均匀性、地形等诱发的应力，并且将其与板内应力的观测结果(如世界应力图)进行比较。我们探索了岩石层非均匀性的两种模型，一种是基于地震和其他观测约束的模型(Crust2．0)；另一模型假定地球处于均衡补偿状态。我们在对地幔牵引力的计算中考虑了两种不同的地幔密度非均匀性模型：一种是基于过去180Ma的板块消减历史的模型，这一模型在精确重现现今大地水准面和新生代板块速度方面证明是成功的；另一种是从地震层析成像结果推断出的模型。我们考察了不同的地幔粘性结构假设对计算结果的影响，以及由软弱板块边界表现出的横向粘性变化对计算结果的影响。尽管在一些地区预测值和观测值的一致性较差，但我们仍发现，将地幔和岩石层应力源都包含在内的综合模型计算结果与应力场观测值符合程度是最好的(约有60％的方差减小量)。只引入地幔牵引力所得到的应力场显示出更大程度上的长波结构，比在应力观测中所看到长波成分更明显，在某些径向地幔牵引力明显较强的地区(如东南亚和西太平洋)，计算结果与观测值的一致性非常好。单由岩石层非均匀性所产生的应力场强烈依赖于我们所假定的地壳模型：尽管根据地球均衡补偿模型计算出的结果与观测值出入很大，但基于Crust2．0模型的计算结果与观测结果一致性却很好，与只含地幔牵引力模型的结果拟合程度差不多，并且在某些地形因素影响很大的地方(如安第斯山脉，东非)拟合得也非常好。对此有一个可能的解释，那就是应力场受地幔粘性横向变化的影响显著。该横向变化使得岩石层和地幔之间出现不同程度的解耦现象，这就使得地幔特征在某些地方占优势，而地壳特征在另外一些地方占优势。均衡补偿地壳模型的计算结果与观测结果一致性较差以及两种地壳模型之间存在的较大差别，这两者说明了研究地形动态变化的重要性，并且地壳结构和流变性也确实存在着不确定性。另外，我们也考虑是否存在这样一种可能性，即从浅层地壳获得的应力观测值也许不能反映整个板块的应力状态；由于岩石层流变性横向和径向的变化，板块上部的应力至少可能部分地与大尺度板块驱动力解耦。     

Recent tectonic stress field zoning in Sichuan-Yunnan region and its dynamic interest

In this paper, we have carefully determined the stress zones in the Sichuan-Yunnan region with reference to the in-situ stress data of hydraulic fracturing and the inverted fault slip data by using the step-by-step convergence method for stress zoning based on focal mechanism solutions. The results indicate that the tectonic stress field in the Sichuan-Yunnan region is divided into 3 stress zones by 2 approximately parallel NNW-trending stress transition belts. The area between the 2 belts is the Sichuan-Yunnan stress zone where the maximum principal stress σ1 is just in the NNW direction. The eastern boundary of Sichuan-Yunnan stress zone （the eastern stress transition belt） is basically consistent with the eastern boundary of Sichuan-Yunnan rhombic block. The western boundary of Sichuan-Yunnan stress zone （the western stress transition belt） is not totally consistent with the western boundary of Sichuan-Yunnan rhombic block. The northern segment of the western stress transition belt extends basically along the Jinshajiang fault and accords with the western boundary of Sichuan-Yunnan rhombic block, while its southern segment does not extend along the southwestern boundary of the rhombic block, i.e., Honghe fault and converge with the eastern stress transition belt, but stretches continuously in the NNW direction and accords with the Yingpanshan fault. We therefore consider that under the combined influence from the northward motion of India Plate, the southeastward shift of east Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and the strong obstruction of South China block, the tectonic stress field in the Sichuan-Yunnan region might not be totally controlled by the previous tectonic frame and new stress transition belt may have possibly formed.