CO2 Input Dynamics and Air–Sea Exchange in a Large New England Estuary

Repeated surveys of the Kennebec estuary, a macrotidal river estuary in Maine, USA, between 2004 and 2008 found spatial and temporal variability both in sources of carbon dioxide (CO₂) to the estuary and the air–sea flux of estuary CO₂. On an annual basis, the surveyed area of the Kennebec estuary had an area-weighted average partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂) of 559 μatm. The area-weighted average CO₂ flux to the atmosphere was 3.54 mol C m^?2 year^?1. Overall, the Kennebec estuary was an annual source of 7.2?×?10⁷ mol CO₂ to the atmosphere. Distinct seasonality in estuarine pCO₂ was observed, with shifts in the seasonal pattern evident between lower and higher salinities. Fluxes of CO₂ from the estuary were elevated following two summertime storms, and inputs of riverine CO₂ outweighed internal estuarine CO₂ inputs in nearly all months. River and estuarine inputs of CO₂ represented 68 and 32 % of the total CO₂ contributions to the estuary, respectively. This study examines the variability of CO₂ in a large New England estuary, and highlights the comparatively high contribution of CO₂ from riverine sources.     

The influence of stochasticism on Indian summer monsoon rainfall and its impact on prediction

Output from a multi-millennial control simulation of the CSIRO Mark 2 coupled model has been used to investigate quantitatively the relation between the Indian summer monsoon rain and El Nino/Southern Oscillation events. A moving window correlation between these two features revealed marked interannual and multi-decadal variability with the correlation coefficient varying between ?0.8 and +0.2. This suggests that current observations showing a decline in this correlation are due to natural climatic variability. A scatter diagram of the anomalies of the Indian summer monsoon rainfall and NINO 3.4 surface temperature showed that in almost 40 % of the cases ENSO events were associated with rainfall anomalies opposite to those implied by the climatological correlation coefficient. Case studies and composites of global distributions of surface temperature and rainfall anomalies for El Nino (or La Nina) events highlight the opposite rainfall anomalies over India that can result from very similar ENSO surface temperature anomalies. Composite differences are used to demonstrate the unique sensitivity of Indian summer monsoon rainfall anomalies to ENSO events. The problem of predicting such anomalies is discussed in relation to the fact that time series of the monsoon rainfall, both observed and simulated, consist of white noise. Based on the scatter diagram it is concluded that in about 60 % of the cases seasonal or annual prediction of monsoon rainfall based on individual ENSO events will result in the correct outcome. Unfortunately, there is no way, a priori, of determining for a given ENSO event whether the correct or a rogue prediction will result. Analysis of the present model’s results suggest that this is an almost world-wide problem for seasonal predictions of rainfall.