Propeller anemometers as sensors of atmospheric turbulence

Even though propeller anemometers are found to give outputs which deviate from the desired cosine relationship by an amount which varies with wind speed, their overall performance is consistent with many atmospheric requirements. Their output per unit wind speed is a function of angle of attack, such that when used as sensors of the vertical or horizontal cross-wind components in the atmosphere, calibration factors may differ by as much as 30 % from those obtained in a normal wind-tunnel calibration procedure (in which wind velocity is parallel to the anemometer shaft). These characteristics are sufficiently important that great care should be taken in using these devices inu-v-w orthogonal arrays.For use in eddy-correlation equipment, it appears that it is best to vane-mount the horizontal sensor to ensure that the appropriate calibration factor is employed.The response lengths of propeller anemometers also vary with angle of attack. Near=0 °, the axially-referred response length appears to depend linearly on cos, but near=90 ° a dependence on cos^1/2 fits the data. No strong effect of wind speed is found.Due to their limited response characteristics, these anemometers give rise to underestimates of the Reynolds stress measured near the surface. The extent of the loss is about 8 % when anemometers in good condition are employed at a height of 5m. Operation at a greater height would allow this error to be reduced. After exposure in the atmosphere for some time, the anemometers tend to respond more slowly and greater losses (of the order 25 %) can occur. Some improvement in performance is possible by the choice of a suitable spatial separation of the sensors.     

The Hill End goldfield,NSW, Australia —early metamorphic deposition of auriferous quartz veins

Summary Gold-bearing quartz veins in the Hill End goldfield, NSW Australia, comprise bedding parallel vein sets and lesser cleavage parallel and fault controlled veins which are hosted by a multiply deformed Late Silurian slate-metagreywacke turbidite sequence. Open to ptygmatic folds and boudinage are characteristic features of the veins. Metamorphic P, T estimates of 2.9 kb and 420°C during Early Carboniferous deformation and vein emplacement are obtained from the calcite, ferroan-magnesian calcite geothermometer and the Si-content of white mica. Fluid inclusions from vein quartz represent unmixed H₂O-rich and CO₂-rich low salinity fluids which have been trapped close to the solvus of the H₂O-CO₂-(NaCl-CH₄) system. Homogenisation temperatures (range 260–361°C) therefore represent true trapping temperatures. A preliminary sulphur isotope study of the vein sulphides indicates that the underlying turbidite sequence has acted as a source of sulphur (range –2.8 to 17.8 per mil). Formation of most veins early in the deformation and the lack of an obvious igneous intrusive source suggests that the gold, as for the sulphur has been derived from the metasedimentary sequence. Deposition of gold has resulted from complex destabilisation due to H₂S loss during transient vein opening and fluid pH changes accompanying CO₂-consuming wallrock reactions.

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Die Goldlagerstdtte Hill End, NSW, Australien—Bildung von goldführenden Quarzgdngen mit beginnender Metamorphose

Zusammenfassung Die goldführenden Quarzgange der Lagerstätte Hill End, NSW, Australien, treten in einer aus Schiefern und Metagrauwacken bestehenden, mehrfach deformierten, obersilurischen Turbitit-Abfolge auf Schichtparallele Quarzgange dominieren, während schieferungsparallele und an Störungen gebundene Gänge untergeordnet auftreten. Die Quarzgänge zeigen offen bis pygmotische Falten und Boudinagen als charakteristische Deformationsstrukturen Die Metamorphosehediuguogen während der unterkarboncu Deformation und Quarzgangbildung konnten mit Hilfe des Kalzit/Fe-Mg-Kalzit Geothermometers und dem Si-Gehalt der Hellglimmer abgeschätzt werden. Es ergaben sich P-T Bedingungen von 2.9 kb und 420°C. Flüssigkeitseinschlüsse im Gangquarz zeigen das Vorhandensein eines entmischten H₂O-reichen und CO₂-reichen Fluidums von geringer Salinität, welches nahe der Solvuskurve des H₂O-CO₂-(NACl-CH₄) Systems eingeschlossen worden ist. Eine vorläufige Untersuchung der Schwefelisotopen der Gangsulfide (–2.8 bis 17.8 per mil) deutet an, dass der Schwefel aus der unterlagernden Turbidit-Abfolge bezogen worden ist. Es wird vermutet, dass nich nur der Schwefel, sondern auch das Gold aus der metasedimentären Abfolge stammen, da die Qurzgänge zu einem frühen Zeitpunkt der Deformation gebildet worden sind, und intrusive magmatische Gesteine, als mögliche Erzbringer, fehlen. Destabilisierung der Goldkomplexe, verursacht durch Verlust von H₂S Zuge der Öffnung der Gangspalten, Änderungen des pH-Wertes des Fluidums und CO₂-konsumierende Reaktionen mit dem Muttergestein, führten zur Ablagerung des Goldes.

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With 6 Figures     

High-Resolution 0.33-0.92 μm Spectra of Iapetus, Hyperion, Phoebe, Rhea, Dione, and D-Type Asteroids: How Are They Related?

New high-resolution spectra in the 0.33 to 0.92 μm range of Iapetus, Hyperion, Phoebe, Dione, Rhea, and three D-type asteroids were obtained on the Palomar 200-inch telescope and the double spectrograph. The spectra of Hyperion and the low-albedo hemisphere of Iapetus can both be closely matched by a simple model that is the linear admixture of the spectrum of a medium-sized, high-albedo icy saturnian satellite and D-type material. Our results support an exogenous origin to the dark material on Iapetus; furthermore, this material may share a common origin and a similar means of transport with material on the surface of Hyperion. The recently discovered retrograde satellites of Saturn (Gladman et al., Nature412, 163-166) may be the source of this material. The leading sides of Callisto and the Uranian satellites may be subjected to a similar alteration mechanism as that of Iapetus: accretion of low-albedo dust originating from outer retrograde satellites. Phoebe does not appear to be related to either Iapetus or Hyperion. Separate spectra of the two hemispheres of Phoebe show no identifiable global compositional differences.     

Export of Acidity in Drainage Water from Acid Sulphate Soils

Disturbed acid sulphate soils are potent sources of acidity in coastal waterways. Monitoring studies of the drainage water for sites at East Trinity, Cairns and Pimpama, south-east Queensland indicate that considerable acidity is found in the drainage water from these sites. Hydrogen (H⁺), ferrous (Fe²⁺) and aluminium (Al) ions are the dominant acid cations involved. When drainage water is mixed with fresh or marine waters the effect of H⁺ on acidity generation is immediate. Aluminium can release acidity on hydrolysis, while the oxidation of Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺ both acidifies and removes dissolved oxygen from the water. Strongly acidic waters with low levels of dissolved oxygen concentration are undesirable for most forms of aquatic life. Export of acidity from acid sulphate soil is likely to have a major effect on inshore fisheries and breeding grounds especially in periods of flood following drought or periods of low rainfall, where large volumes of acidity can be flushed/leached into sensitive aquatic/marine habitats. Impacts may include low dissolved oxygen, fish kills, epizootic ulceration syndrome and damage to oysters. During the processes of oxidation and hydrolysis, iron and aluminium flocs form, that can smother benthic communities. Heavy metals are found in the drainage water at elevated levels and may also be of concern for aquatic organisms. Chronic effects such as habitat degradation, mortality of marine worms, bivalves, invasion of acid tolerant species (both plant and animal) and avoidance of habitat have been documented elsewhere. These areas require further research.     

Typical features of atmospheric turbulence profiles associated with Chinooks

Abstract

Winter operation of an acoustic sounder at Calgary, Alberta, has led to some unique observations during Chinook periods. Acoustic backscatter records obtained in these periods reveal an identifiable pattern of events in the atmospheric boundary layer. Descending turbulent structures are observed in pre‐Chinook conditions; the arrival of these structures near ground is associated with the onset of ground‐level warming. When ground‐level temperatures have risen to near 0°C, a deep (200–500 m thick) characteristic region of turbulence is generated in the boundary layer. The correlation of these features with surface wind and temperature data is discussed.     

9969 Braille: Deep Space 1 infrared spectroscopy, geometric albedo, and classification

Spectra of Asteroid 9969 Braille in the 1.25-2.6 μm region returned by the Deep Space 1 (DS1) Mission show a ∼10% absorption band centered at 2 μm, and a reflectance peak at 1.6 μm. Analysis of these features suggest that the composition of Braille is roughly equal parts pyroxene and olivine. Its spectrum between 0.4 and 2.5 μm suggests that it is most closely related to the Q taxonomic type of asteroid. The spectrum also closely matches that of the ordinary chondrites, the most common type of terrestrial meteorite. The geometric albedo of Braille is unusually high (p_v=0.34), which is also consistent with its placement within the rarer classes of stony asteroids, and which suggests it has a relatively fresh, unweathered surface, perhaps due to a recent collision.     

Deep Space 1 photometry of the nucleus of Comet 19P/Borrelly

The NASA-JPL Deep Space 1 Mission (DS1) encountered the short-period Jupiter-family Comet 19P/Borrelly on September 22, 2001, about 8 days after perihelion. DS1's payload contained a remote-sensing package called MICAS (Miniature Integrated Camera Spectrometer) that included a 1024 square CCD and a near IR spectrometer with ∼12 nm resolution. Prior to its closest approach of 2171 km, the remote-sensing package on the spacecraft obtained 25 CCD images of the comet and 45 near-IR spectra (L. Soderblom et al., 2002, Science 296, 1087-1091). These images provided the first close-up view of a comet's nucleus sufficiently unobscured to perform quantitative photometric studies. At closest approach, corresponding to a resolution of 47 meters per pixel, the intensity of the coma was less than 1% of that of the nucleus. An unprecedented range of high solar phase angles (52-89 degrees), viewing geometries that are in general attainable only when a comet is active, enabled the first quantitative and disk resolved modeling of surface photometric physical parameters, including the single particle phase function and macroscopic roughness. The disk-integrated geometric albedo of Borrelly's nucleus is 0.029±0.006, comparable to the dark hemisphere of Iapetus, the lowest albedo C-type asteroids, and the uranian rings. The Bond albedo, 0.009±0.002, is lower than that of any Solar System object measured. Such a low value may enhance the heating of the nucleus and sublimation of volatiles, which in turn causes the albedo to decrease even further. A map of normal reflectance of Borrelly shows variations far greater than those seen on asteroids. The two main terrain types, smooth and mottled, exhibit mean normal reflectances of 0.03 and 0.022. The physical photometric parameters of Borrelly's nucleus are typical of other small dark bodies, particularly asteroids, except preliminary modeling results indicate its regolith may be substantially fluffier. The nucleus exhibits significant variations in macroscopic roughness, with the oldest, darkest terrain being slightly smoother. This result suggests the infilling of low-lying areas with dust and particles that have not been able to leave the comet. The surface of the comet is backscattering, but there are significant variations in the single particle phase function. One region exhibits a flat particle phase function between solar phase angles of 50° and 75° (like cometary dust and unlike planetary surfaces), suggesting that its regolith is controlled by native dust rather than by meteoritic bombardment.     

On Kinematic Isolation in Stable Stratification: The CASES-99 Tower Observations

Boundary-Layer Meteorology - Tower observations made during the Cooperative Atmosphere–Surface Exchange Study 1999 investigation of the nocturnal planetary boundary layer support the finding...