Transverse Mercator with an accuracy of a few nanometers

Implementations of two algorithms for the transverse Mercator projection are described; these achieve accuracies close to machine precision. One is based on the exact equations of Thompson and Lee and the other uses an extension of Krüger’s series for the mapping to higher order. The exact method provides an accuracy of 9 nm over the entire ellipsoid, while the errors in the series method are less than 5 nm within 3900 km of the central meridian. In each case, the meridian convergence and scale are also computed with similar accuracy. The speed of the series method is competitive with other less accurate algorithms and the exact method is about five times slower.     

Comparative assessment of the relationship of satellite data with the above ground biomass of Sal trees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Shorea robusta</Emphasis>) determined from phenologically different time periods

The Above Ground Biomass(AGB) estimates of vegetation comprise both the bole biomass determined through a volumetric equation and litter biomass collected from the ground.For mature trees,the AGB estimated in phenologically different time periods is directly affected by the litter biomass since the Diameter at Breast Height(DBH) and height(H) of such trees that are used in the estimation of bole biomass would remain unchanged over a reasonable time period.In the present study,we have determined the AGB of Sal trees(Shorea robusta) in two contrasting seasons:the peak green period in October being devoid of lit-ter on the ground and the leaf shedding period in February with abundant amount of litter present on the ground.Estimation of AGB for the month of February included the litter biomass.In contrast,the AGB for October represented only the bole biomass.AGB was estimated for ten different plots selected in the study area.The AGB estimated from ten sampling plots for each time period was re-gressed with the individual tree parameters such as the average DBH and height of trees measured from the corresponding plots.The regression analysis exhibited a significantly stronger relationship between the AGB and DBH for the month of October as compared to February.Furthermore,the correlation between the remotely sensed derived data and AGB was also found to be significantly higher for the month of October than February.This observation indicates that inclusion of the litter biomass in AGB will tend to decrease the re-gression relationship between AGB and DBH and also between the remotely sensed data and AGB.Therefore,these conclusions invite careful consideration while estimating AGB from satellite data in phenologically different time periods.     

Quality assessment of GPS reprocessed terrestrial reference frame

The International GNSS Service (IGS) contributes to the construction of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) by submitting time series of station positions and Earth Rotation Parameters (ERP). For the first time, its submission to the ITRF2008 construction is based on a combination of entirely reprocessed GPS solutions delivered by 11 Analysis Centers (ACs). We analyze the IGS submission and four of the individual AC contributions in terms of the GNSS frame origin and scale, station position repeatability and time series seasonal variations. We show here that the GPS Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF) origin is consistent with Satellite laser Ranging (SLR) at the centimeter level with a drift lower than 1 mm/year. Although the scale drift compared to Very Long baseline Interferometry (VLBI) and SLR mean scale is smaller than 0.4 mm/year, we think that it would be premature to use that information in the ITRF scale definition due to its strong dependence on the GPS satellite and ground antenna phase center variations. The new position time series also show a better repeatability compared to past IGS combined products and their annual variations are shown to be more consistent with loading models. The comparison of GPS station positions and velocities to those of VLBI via local ties in co-located sites demonstrates that the IGS reprocessed solution submitted to the ITRF2008 is more reliable and precise than any of the past submissions. However, we show that some of the remaining inconsistencies between GPS and VLBI positioning may be caused by uncalibrated GNSS radomes.     

Spatio-Temporal Coherence Based Technique for Near-Real Time Sea-Ice Identification from Scatterometer Data

The identification of sea-ice has frequently been cited as one of the most important tasks for deriving the sea-ice parameters and to avoid erroneous retrieval of wind vector over sea-ice infested oceans using space-borne scatterometer data. Discrimination between sea-ice and ocean is ambiguous under the high wind and/or thin/scattered ice conditions. The pre-launch technique developed for Oceansat-2, utilizes the dual-polarized QuikSCAT scatterometer data by using the spatio-temporal coherence properties of sea ice in addition to backscatter coefficient and the Active Polarization Ratio. Results were compared with the operational sea-ice products from National Snow and Ice Data Center. The threshold API value of −0.025 was found optimum for sea-ice and ocean discrimination. The overall sea-ice identification accuracy achieved was of the order of 95 per cent, ranging from 92.5% (during December in Southern Hemisphere) to 98% (during March in Northern Hemisphere). The applicability of the algorithm for both the Arctic as well as Antarctic makes it suitable for its operational use with the Oceansat-2 scatterometer data.     

A Spatial Database of Cropping System and its Characteristics to Aid Climate Change Impact Assessment Studies

Cropping system study is not only useful to understand the overall sustainability of agricultural system, but also it helps in generating many important parameters which are useful in climate change impact assessment. Considering its importance, Space Applications Centre, took up a project for mapping and characterizing major cropping systems of Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. The study area included the five states of Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of India, i.e. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. There were two aspects of the study. The first aspect included state and district level cropping system mapping using multi-date remote sensing (IRS-AWiFS and Radarsat ScanSAR) data. The second part was to characterize the cropping system using moderate spatial resolution multi-date remote sensing data (SPOT VGT NDVI) and ground survey. The remote sensing data was used to compute three cropping system performance indices (Multiple Cropping Index, Area Diversity Index and Cultivated Land Utilization Index). Ground survey was conducted using questionnaires filled up by 1,000 farmers selected from 103 villages based on the cropping systems map. Apart from ground survey, soil and water sampling and quality analysis were carried out to understand the effect of different cropping systems and their management practices. The results showed that, rice-wheat was the major cropping system of the IGP, followed by Rice-Fallow-Fallow and Maize-Wheat. Other major cropping systems of IGP included Sugarcane based, Pearl millet-Wheat, Rice-Fallow-Rice, Cotton-Wheat. The ground survey could identify 77 cropping systems, out of which 38 are rice-based systems. Out of these 77 cropping systems, there were 5 single crop systems, occupying 6.5% coverage (of all cropping system area), 56 double crop systems with 72.7% coverage, and 16 triple crop systems with 20.8% coverage. The cropping system performance analysis showed that the crop diversity was found to be highest in Haryana, while the cropping intensity was highest in Punjab state.     

Self-calibration Applied in Converting Simulation Surveying

In the field of converting simulation surveying and traditional close range photogrammetry, it has been developed so far to survey objects by commercial digital camera and this technique is applied widely in every part of production. In order to get three-dimensional information of objects, commercial digital camera must be examined. For a long time, digital camera has been examined by DLT. Then there must be a high-precision control field. For realizing surveying without control points, a method for self-calibration is proposed.     

Study on the urban heat island effects and its relationship with surface biophysical characteristics using MODIS imageries

This study assesses surface urban heat island (UHI) and its associated surface physical characteristics using remote sensing approaches. TERRA/MODIS images acquired in 2005 in three different seasons were selected to generate land surface tem-perature and surface characteristics for the Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan metropolitan area in China. The intensity of urban heat is-land effects and its seasonal variations were examined. The result showed that UHI effects were significant both in the summer and the spri...     

Integrating terrain and vegetation indices for identifying potential soil erosion risk area

The present paper offers an innovative method to monitor the change in soil erosion potential by integrating terrain and vegetation indices derived from remote sensing data. Three terrain indices namely, topographic wetness index (TWI), stream power index (SPI) and slope length factor (LS), were derived from the digital elevation model. Normalized vegetation index (NDVI) was derived for the year 1988 and 2004 using remote sensing images. K-mean clustering was performed on staked indices to categorize the study area into four soil erosion potential classes. The validation of derived erosion potential map using USLE model showed a good agreement. Results indicated that there was a significant change in the erosion potential of the watershed and a gradual shifting of lower erosion potential class to next higher erosion potential class over the study period.     

Use of service middleware based on ECHO with CSW for discovery and registry of MODIS data

Nowadays, NASA is producing several terabytes Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data everyday; how to find the data with criteria, such as specific times, locations, and scales using an international standard becomes more and more important. In this paper, a service-oriented architecture for use of the integration Earth Observation System Clearing-HOuse (ECHO) with the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Catalogue Service—Web profile (CSW) is put forward. The architecture consists of three roles: a service requester (the user), a service provider (the ECHO metadata server), and a service broker (the GeoNetwork CSW and MODIS registry service middleware). The core component-MODIS registry service middleware includes three components: metadata fetcher, metadata transformer, and metadata register. The metadata fetcher is used to fetch metadata from ECHO metadata server; the metadata transformer is responsible for transform metadata from one form to another; the metadata register is in charge of registering ISO19139-based metadata to CSW. A prototype system is designed and implemented by using the service middleware technology and a standard interface and protocol. The feasibility and the response time of registry and retrieval of MODIS data are evaluated by means of a realistic LPDAAC_ECS MODIS data center. The implementation of this prototype system and the experiment show that the architecture and method is feasible and effective.     

Approaches for delineating landslide hazard areas using different training sites in an advanced artificial neural network model

The current paper presents landslide hazard analysis around the Cameron area, Malaysia, using advanced artificial neural networks with the help of Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing techniques. Landslide locations were determined in the study area by interpretation of aerial photographs and from field investigations. Topographical and geological data as well as satellite images were collected, processed, and constructed into a spatial database using GIS and image processing. Ten factors were selected for landslide hazard including: 1) factors related to topography as slope, aspect, and curvature; 2) factors related to geology as lithology and distance from lineament; 3) factors related to drainage as distance from drainage; and 4) factors extracted from TM satellite images as land cover and the vegetation index value. An advanced artificial neural network model has been used to analyze these factors in order to establish the landslide hazard map. The back-propagation training method has been used for the selection of the five different random training sites in order to calculate the factor’s weight and then the landslide hazard indices were computed for each of the five hazard maps. Finally, the landslide hazard maps (five cases) were prepared using GIS tools. Results of the landslides hazard maps have been verified using landslide test locations that were not used during the training phase of the neural network. Our findings of verification results show an accuracy of 69%, 75%, 70%, 83% and 86% for training sites 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. GIS data was used to efficiently analyze the large volume of data, and the artificial neural network proved to be an effective tool for landslide hazard analysis. The verification results showed sufficient agreement between the presumptive hazard map and the existing data on landslide areas.