An integrative study of larval organogenesis of American shad <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alosa sapidissima</Emphasis> in histological aspects

We describe organogenesis at a histological level in American shad (Alosa sapidissima) larvae from 0 until 45 days after hatching (DAH). Larval development was divided into four stages based on the feeding mode, external morphological features, and structural changes in the organs: stage 1 (0–2 DAH), stage 2 (3–5 DAH), stage 3 (6–26 DAH) and stage 4 (27–45 DAH). At early stage 2 (3 DAH), American shad larvae developed the initial digestive and absorptive tissues, including the mouth and anal opening, buccopharyngeal cavity, oesophagus, incipient stomach, anterior and posterior intestine, differentiated hepatocytes, and exocrine pancreas. The digestive and absorptive capacity developed further in stages 2 to 3, at which time the pharyngeal teeth, taste buds, gut mucosa folds, differentiated stomach, and gastric glands could be observed. Four defined compartments were discernible in the heart at 4 DAH. From 3 to 13 DAH, the excretory systems started to develop, accompanied by urinary bladder opening, the appearance and development of primordial pronephros, and the proliferation and convolution of renal tubules. Primordial gills were detected at 2 DAH, the pseudobranch was visible at 6 DAH, and the filaments and lamellae proliferated rapidly during stage 3. The primordial swim bladder was first observed at 2 DAH and started to inflate at 9 DAH; from then on, it expanded constantly. The spleen was first observed at 8 DAH and the thymus was evident at 12 DAH. From stage 4 onwards, most organs essentially manifested an increase in size, number, and complexity of tissue structure.     

Characterization of the mechanical properties of a claystone by nano-indentation and homogenization

Based on the analyses of mineralogical compositions by X-ray diffraction and microstructure by optical microscopy, the Young’ modulus and hardness of a claystone were characterized by the nano-indentation technique and homogenization method. Three distinct microstructural zones are identified in the claystone: clay matrix, a composite matrix of clay and small mineral grains and imbedded quartz grains. The elastic modulus and hardness of different zones were determined by nano-indentation testing. Based on the statistical analysis of nano-indentation results, the spatial mappings and frequency distributions of elastic modulus and hardness of the different zones were obtained. The elastic moduli of main constituent phases of the claystone are then estimated from the nano-indentation tests. These values were further used for the determination of the macroscopic elastic modulus of the claystone using two different homogenization schemes: the dilute scheme and Mori–Tanaka scheme. The predicted values by the homogenization schemes are compared with experimental data obtained from conventional uniaxial compression tests.     

Borehole diffusive flux apparatus for characterizing diffusive mass-transfer in subsurface systems

The concept of the Borehole Diffusive Flux Apparatus (BDFA) is presented herein. The BDFA is an innovative apparatus designed to provide continuous direct access to an undisturbed column of sediment that can be monitored at multiple discrete vertical intervals to provide high-resolution characterization of local-scale mass transfer and attenuation. The conceptual basis and technical design of the device are presented, along with an example of borehole design and installation at a field site. Mathematical simulations are used to illustrate its application for two scenarios. The results of these simulations indicate that test periods of several weeks to a few months should be sufficient to obtain robust results. The device has the potential to improve our ability to characterize critical mass-transfer and attenuation processes and to quantify the associated rates. This information is key to the evaluation of remediation alternatives, for enhancing the accuracy of mathematical models, and to support more effective long-term management of large groundwater contaminant plumes present at many sites.     

A nonlinear multiparameter prestack seismic inversion method based on hybrid optimization approach

Multiparameter prestack seismic inversion is one of the most powerful techniques in quantitatively estimating subsurface petrophysical properties. However, it remains a challenging problem due to the nonlinearity and ill-posedness of the inversion process. Traditional regularization approach can stabilize the solution but at the cost of smoothing valuable geological boundaries. In addition, compared with linearized optimization methods, global optimization techniques can obtain better results regardless of initial models, especially for multiparameter prestack inversion. However, when solving multiparameter prestack inversion problems, the application of standard global optimization algorithms maybe limited due to the issue of high computational cost (e.g., simulating annealing) or premature convergence (e.g., particle swarm optimization). In this paper, we propose a hybrid optimization-based multiparameter prestack inversion method. In this method, we introduce a prior constraint term featured by multiple regularization functions, intended to preserve layered boundaries of geological formations; in particular, to address the problem of premature convergence existing in standard particle swarm optimization algorithm, we propose a hybrid optimization strategy by hybridizing particle swarm optimization and very fast simulating annealing to solve the nonlinear optimization problem. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed inversion method by conducting synthetic test and field data application, both of which show encouraging results.     

Development of efficiently coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical model to predict hydraulic fracture morphology in heavy oil reservoirs

The aim of the study involves examining the effect of heavy oil viscosity on fracture geometry in detail by establishing a heavy oil fracturing model and conventional fracturing model based on thermal–hydraulic–mechanical (THM) coupled theory, Walther viscosity model, and K–D–R temperature model. We consider viscosity and density within the heavy oil fracturing model as functions of pressure and temperature while that as constants within the conventional fracturing model. A heavy oil production well is set as an example to analyze the differences between the two models to account for the thermo-poro-elastic effect. The results show that temperature exhibits the most significant influence on the heavy oil viscosity while the influence of pressure is the least. In addition, a cooling area with a width of 0–1 m and varied length is generated near the fracture. The heavy oil viscosity increases sharply in this area, thereby indicating an area of viscosity increment. The heavy oil viscosity increases faster and is closer to wellbore, and a high viscosity increment reduces the mobility of the heavy oil and prevents the fracturing fluid from entering into the reservoir. The special viscosity distribution results in significant differences in pore pressure, oil saturation, and changing trends between these two models. In the heavy oil reservoir fracturing model, the thermal effect completely exceeds the influence of pore elasticity, and the values of the fracture length, width, and static pressure exceed those calculated in the conventional fracturing model. Thus, a comparison of the measured values indicates that the results obtained by considering viscosity as a function of temperature and pressure are more accurate. Therefore, the results of this study are expected to provide good guidelines for the design of heavy oil fracturing.