High spatio-temporal resolution measurements of cohesive sediment erosion

In this study, we present a novel approach to measure fundamental processes of cohesive sediment erosion. The experimental setup consists of a laboratory erosion flume (SETEG) and a photogrammetric method to detect sediment erosion (PHOTOSED). Detailed data are presented for three erosion experiments, which were conducted with a natural non-cohesive/cohesive sediment mixture at increasing sediment depths (4, 8, 16 cm). In each experiment, the sediment was exposed to a set of incrementally increasing shear stresses and the erosion was measured dynamically, pixel-based, and approximate to the process scale given the resolution of PHOTOSED. This enables us to distinguish between (i) individual emerging erosion spots caused by surface erosion and (ii) large holes torn open by detached aggregate chunks. Moreover, interrelated processes were observed, such as (iii) propagation of the erosion in the longitudinal and lateral direction leading to merging of disconnected erosion areas and (iv) progressive vertical erosion of already affected areas. By complementing the (bulk) erosion volume profiles with additional quantitative variables, which contain spatial information (erosion area, specific deepening, number of disconnected erosion areas), conclusions on the erosion behaviour (and the dominant processes) can be drawn without requiring qualitative information (such as visual observations). In addition, we provide figures indicating the spatio-temporal erosion variability and the (bulk) erosion rates for selected time periods. We evaluate the variability by statistical quantities and show that significant erosion is mainly confined to only a few events during temporal progression, but then considerably exceeds the time-averaged median of the erosion (factors between 7.0 and 16.0). Further, we point to uncertainties in using (bulk) erosion rates to assess cohesive sediment erosion and particularly the underlying processes. As a whole, the results emphasise the need to measure cohesive sediment erosion with high spatio-temporal resolution to obtain reliable and robust information. © 2020 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd     

Deep reflection seismic imaging of iron-oxide deposits in the Ludvika mining area of central Sweden

Reflection seismic data were acquired within two field campaigns in the Blötberget, Ludvika mining area of central Sweden, for deep imaging of iron-oxide mineralization that were known to extend down to 800–850 m depth. The two surveys conducted in years 2015 and 2016, one employing a seismic landstreamer and geophones connected to wireless recorders, and another one using cabled geophones and wireless recorders, aimed to delineate the geometry and depth extent of the iron-oxide mineralization for when mining commences in the area. Even with minimal and conventional processing approaches, the merged datasets provide encouraging information about the depth continuation of the mineralized horizons and the geological setting of the study area. Multiple sets of strong reflections represent a possible continuation of the known deposits that extend approximately 300 m further down-dip than the known 850 m depth obtained from historical drilling. They show excellent correlation in shape and strength with those of the Blötberget deposits. Furthermore, several reflections in the footwall of the known mineralization can potentially be additional resources underlying the known ones. The results from these seismic surveys are encouraging for mineral exploration purposes given the good quality of the final section and fast seismic surveys employing a simple cost-effective and easily available impact-type seismic source.     

The thermal springs of Jordan

The thermal springs alongside Wadi Araba, Dead Sea and Jordan valley, Jordan, were investigated and sampled in a comprehensive field study of 2 weeks. Conventional physicochemical properties were measured in situ; dissolved solids and isotopic composition were analyzed. Two main spring locations on the east side of the Dead Sea were mapped. It became evident, that the hottest springs are among the closest to prominent faults; some springs are controlled by gas lift. Jordan’s hot springs are described by means of a broad hydrochemical and physicochemical data set and several figures are presented. Based on their hydrochemistry, the thermal springs are classified into four thermal provinces. Water genesis is discussed. Several geothermometers are applied to estimate reservoir temperatures. Observed discharge rate, water temperature and isotopic composition are compared with data from the literature. Although discharge and water temperature are reported to be constant over the last decades, groundwater overexploitation led to a shift of the isotopic composition, what is documented for the first time in Jordan. Thus, the effect of groundwater mining on Jordan’s hot springs can be stated as a fact.     

Lamellar nigerite in Zn-rich spinel from the Falun deposit,Sweden

Lamellar nigerite is found in Zn-rich spinel from a sample that contains chiefly anthophyllite + spinel + cordierite, lesser amounts of quartz and chlorite, as well as sphalerite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, and galena, and rare cassiterite and rutile. Nigerite can be described as interlayering of spinel-like (R²⁺Al₂O₄) and nolanite-like ((Sn, Ti)Al₄O₈) structures. In nigerite, the spinel-like part is also compositionally related to spinel, but in the nolanite-like part only the structural analogy exists. Stoichiometric assumptions that relate the anhydrous cation sum to the amount of R⁴⁺ cations present, allow Fe³⁺ estimates from microprobe analyses, and a representative analysis gives the following anhydrous formula: Mg_1.30Fe _0.65 ²⁺ Zn_3.03Mn_0.03Al_11.65Fe _0.35 ³⁺ Sn_0.32Ti_0.18O₂₄.The nigerite is Zn-rich with a Zn ratio (Zn/(Zn+Mg+ Fe²⁺)) of about 0.59, and the Sn ratio (Sn/(Sn+Ti)) that ranges from about 0.63 to 0.41. The Fe³⁺ content in these samples ranges from 0.35 to 0.52 (24 oxygen basis).Textures suggest that the nigerite could have formed by the breakdown of R ₂ ²⁺ (Sn, Ti)O₄ and R²⁺Al₂O₄ spinel components during more complex reactions. An experimental investigation of the MgAl₂O₄-Mg₂SnO₄ join indicates that the solubility of Mg₂SnO₄ component in spinel over the T interval 500 to 900° C is about 0.5 to 3.0 mole %. This, coupled with the increased solubility expected from the presence of Ti, gives good agreement with the 2.4 to 2.6 mole % R ₂ ²⁺ (Sn, Ti)O₄ component in spinel that is estimated to be the maximum necessary to form the compositions and amounts of observed nigerite.     

Using a Sodar to Measure Optical Turbulence and Wind Speed for the Thirty Meter Telescope Site Testing. Part II: Comparison with Independent Instruments

In the second part of this study, we compare both the wind speed and turbulence given by the Sodars with independent sets of measurements. In the case of the wind speed we compare the lowest Sodar data bin with a sonic anemometer located on a 7-m tower. The agreement between the two instruments was convincing with a regression slope near unity. The integrated turbulence measurements of the Sodars are compared with those obtained with a combined multi-aperture scintillation sensor and differential image motion monitor (MASS/DIMM) unit. It was found that the Sodars are indeed capable of quantitatively measuring optical turbulence, and agree with the MASS/DIMM measurements with a correlation coefficient of approximately 80% and a regression slope within 10% of unity. Additional acoustic noise in the Sodar data was identified using this comparison and removed from the data.     

Using a Sodar to Measure Optical Turbulence and Wind Speed for the Thirty Meter Telescope Site Testing. Part I: Reproducibility

In this two-part study, we investigate the usefulness of Sodars as part of a large instrument suite for the study of high mountains in the site selection process of the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT). In this first part, we describe the reproducibility of the measurements and the comparability of results from different sites for data taken with two complementary Sodar models: the XFAS and SFAS models manufactured by Scintec Inc. To this end, a cross-calibration campaign was conducted on two of the sites comparing both the wind speeds and the optical turbulence measurements of the different units. The specific set-up conditions and the low atmospheric pressure require us to make a compromise between the amount of data available for statistics and the quality of the data. For the comparison of the wind speed, results from the same models show a systematic difference of 12 and 9% for the XFAS and SFAS, respectively. The scatter between individual measurements, which includes instrumental, set-up and statistical fluctuation contributions, was found to be 21 and 23%. For optical turbulence, the respective values are 6 and 3% for the systematic difference and 46 and 67% for the scatter. These results show that Sodars can be useful tools for astronomical site testing for projects such as the TMT.     

Probabilistic assessment of regional climate change in Southwest Germany by ensemble dressing

Since single-integration climate models only provide one possible realization of climate variability, ensembles are a promising way to estimate the uncertainty in climate modeling. A statistical model is presented that extracts information from an ensemble of regional climate simulations to estimate probability distributions of future temperature change in Southwest Germany in the following two decades. The method used here is related to kernel dressing which has been extended to a multivariate approach in order to estimate the temporal autocovariance in the ensemble system. It has been applied to annual and seasonal mean temperatures given by ensembles of the coupled general circulation model ECHAM5/MPI-OM as well as the regional climate simulations using the COSMO-CLM model. The results are interpreted in terms of the bivariate probability density of mean and trend within the period 2011–2030 with respect to 1961–1990. Throughout the study region one can observe an average increase in annual mean temperature of approximately +0.6K and a corresponding trend of +0.15K/20a. While the increase in 20-year mean temperature is virtually certain, the 20-year trend still shows a 20% chance for negative values. This indicates that the natural variability of the climate system, as far as it is reflected by the ensemble system, can produce negative trends even in the presence of longer-term warming. Winter temperatures are clearly more affected and for both quantities we observe a north-to-south pattern where the increase in the very southern part is less intense.     

Reconstruction of the ice winter severity since 1701 in the Western Baltic

This reconstruction of the ice winter severity in the Western Baltic is based for the period 1878-1993 on the accumulated areal ice volume along the German Baltic coast with observations from 13 coastal stations; for the period 1701-1877 it is based on the accumulated areal ice volume divided into 7 classes (ice winter severity types). The various types of data consulted in the latter case provided ice data of good spatial and temporal resolution.Speerschneider's compilation of data relating to ice conditions in Danish Baltic waters was found to be a valuable source of information. Using a classification table for the periods 1907-1943 and 1947-1992, five of the seven ice winter types have been derived with certainty as they are characterized by typical stages of maximum ice cover throughout the Western Baltic.The Gaussian lowpass-filtered time series of the ice winter index numerals with a 20 year cutoff period shows four periods of varying ice winter severity over a secular range: 1701-1720: slightly increased ice winter severity with regard to the mean of the 1701-1993 time series; this period can be assigned to the end of a cooling phase during Little Ice Age which in central Europe peaked in the second half of the 17th c. 1721-1760: ice winter severity is clearly reduced in this period. 1761-1860: ice winter severity is clearly increased (maximum occurs around 1800) towards the end of the Little Ice Age, associated with increased variability of ice production. 1861-1993: the present-day ice winter regime when three short intervals with increased ice winter severity (the 1890s, 1940s and 1980s) and a period of greatly reduced ice winter severity (between 1900 and the mid-1920s) stand out.     

Development of Emission Models and Improvement of Emission Data for Germany

Measurements and model developments with the objective to improve the quality and resolution of estimations of anthropogenic emissions are described. Measurement results on a chassis dynamometer were used to determine VOC profiles for exhaust gas emissions of passenger cars for different vehicle and fuel types and different driving modes. Further measurements resulted in emission factors and VOC profiles for lignite burning in residential stoves. Using remote sensing techniques benzene emission factors of gas stations and the efficiency of gasoline vapour recovery systems were measured.To improve the quality and the spatial and temporal resolution of emission data, emission models were improved or modified. This was done by elaborating and applying new methods for important emission source categories (e.g., solvent use, road traffic, small combustion) as well as including new data sources in the calculation routines (e.g. emission statements, land use data, import/export indices of solvents). Simultaneously considerable progress was made improving temporal and spatial allocation functions and VOC profiles. With these improvements a large number of anthropogenic emission data sets for 14 different grid projections in Germany and Europe have been generated. An emission scenario for Germany for 2010 suggests that considering air quality directives from the EU and Germany which are in force or in pipeline, German emissions of VOC and NO_x will decrease, but still exceed the national emission ceilings of the EU-NEC directive.     

Short-Term Ozone Forecasting with a Network Model System during Summer 1999

Within the framework of the Tropospheric Research Programme (TFS) four working groups in Germany (University of Stuttgart, University of Cologne, Research Center Karlsruhe, German Weather Service) formed a network developing a model system for chemistry transport calculations on different scales. The network was optimized, based on each module and combined for the different interfaces in order to perform daily preoperational ozone forecasts and its precursors at the German Weather Service in summer 1999 (May through September). The setup of the model system, the interfaces and changes of each module are described. The results of the whole preoperational episode are displayed and discussed. Main efforts were done analyzing the model climate statistics and the verification of the predictions with an extensive data base of observations at stations in Germany. The results of this extensive verification demonstrate the relatively good performance of the entire forecast system.