Factor analysis: How it copes with complex geological problems

Factor analysis utilizing textural data from 81 bottom samples was used to analyze the surficial sediments covering a 40,000-sq km area, which is one input data point per 500 km. On the other hand, the surficial geology of the area studied is complex as some map units are only 1 km wide in places. Under these circumstances it is interesting to determine that factor analysis nonetheless aims toward a reasonable geological solution. If the premise is accepted that factor analysis provides a solution best-fitted to the data, the geologist has carried his research one step further and is left with the problem of interpreting the results of factor analysis correctly. In this experiment, the interpretation of the factors representing the gravel and the mud is relatively simple, although the two factors representing sands are more difficult to explain. The proper interpretation of factors leads naturally to an inquiry on the optimum number of factors to use, but this problem can be solved objectively by considering the factor loadings.     

Global point‐mass adjustment of the oceanic geoid based on satellite altimetry

Altimeter residuals from a global spherical‐harmonic adjustment of satellite altimetry can be used as observations in a subsequent, or second‐phase, adjustment of a short‐wavelength oceanic geoid in terms of point‐mass magnitudes as parameters. An important part of the development presented is the formulation of the second‐phase adjustment via a banded or a banded‐bordered system of normal equations. This task encompasses three separate features: (1) elimination of the point masses from an observation equation if they are sufficiently far from the pertinent observation point, (2) special arrangement of the point‐mass parameters in the adjustment scheme, and (3) resolution of the resulting system through an adaptation of the well‐known Choleski algorithm. If only the point‐mass magnitudes are subject to adjustment, one is concerned with a banded system of normal equations. If selected tidal parameters are also implicated, this system becomes banded‐bordered. In fact, the former is a special case of the latter in every respect. By virtue of this approach (with or without tidal parameters), geoid undulations over large ocean basins can be adjusted in a few overlapping strips of point masses, leading to a detailed resolution of the entire oceanic geoid.     

La déformation post-Miocène en Provence occidentale

Résumé

Le but de la présente étude est de caractériser la déformation récente subie par la Provence occidentale, située entre la nappe de Digne à l’est et la faille de Nîmes à l’ouest. Dans un premier temps, la déformation subie par un marqueur sédimentaire qui est à la fois le plus récent possible et le plus uniformément représenté dans la zone étudiée est considérée. Ce marqueur sédimentaire est le Miocène. La caractérisation de la déformation passe par l’étude de la localisation de celle-ci et donc par l’identification des structures actives responsables de la déformation du Miocène. Ces caractéristiques permettent d’estimer la quantité de raccourcissement total accumulé lors des derniers 20 millions d’années. Dans un deuxième temps, on distingue la part de la déformation postMiocène de cette déformation totale. Les marqueurs utilisés sont des surfaces et des objets géomorphologiques repères. Dans ce travail, nous montrons que la déformation en Provence a été de faible importance entre le Miocène et factuel et qu’elle est surtout produite au cours du Miocène. En conséquence, la déformation récente à actuelle est très difficile à localiser et à caractériser. 11 n’y a pas eu de déplacements post Miocène importants de part et d’autre de la faille de la Durance, pas plus d’ailleurs que le long de toutes les discontinuités majeures du domaine étudié. © 2000 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS     

Sea surface temperature modelling in the Sea of Iroise: assessment of boundary conditions

The present study investigates the sensitivity of the COupled Hydrodynamical–Ecological model for REgioNal and Shelf seas (COHERENS) to predict sea surface temperature (SST) patterns in the Sea of Iroise (western end of French Brittany) in relation to the spatial and temporal resolutions of open boundary conditions (OBCs). Two sources of daily operational OBCs of temperature are considered, derived from (1) the Mercator Global Ocean and (2) the Iberian Biscay Irish analysis and forecasting systems delivering predictions at spatial resolutions of 1/12° and 1/36°, respectively. Coastal model performance is evaluated by comparing SST predictions with recently available field data collected (1) along the route of a vessel travelling between the coast and the isle of Ushant and (2) at two offshore stations. The comparison is extended to SST spatial distribution derived from remote-sensing observations. The influence of OBC spatial resolution is exhibited in the north-eastern area of the Sea of Iroise in relation to the intrusion of cold surface waters. OBC temporal resolution is found to have a lower impact advocating for the implementation of climatological temperature forcings to predict major SST patterns in the Sea of Iroise.     

New igneous zircon Pb/Pb and metamorphic Rb/Sr ages in the Yaounde Group (Cameroon, Central Africa): implications for the Central African fold belt evolution close to the Congo Craton

Three meta-igneous bodies from the Yaounde Group have been analyzed for their petrography, geochemistry, and ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb zircon ages. According to their geochemical patterns, they represent meta-diorites. The meta-plutonites yielded identical zircon ages with a mean of 624?±?2?Ma interpreted as their intrusion age. This age is in agreement with previously published zircon ages of meta-diorites from the Yaounde Group. The meta-diorites derived mainly from crustal rocks with minor contribution from mantle material. The ⁸⁷Rb/⁸⁶Sr isochron ages of one meta-diorite sample and three meta-sedimentary host rocks are significantly younger than the obtained intrusion age. Therefore, they are not related to igneous processes. ⁸⁷Rb/⁸⁶Sr isochron ages differ from sample to sample (599?±?3, 572?±?4, 554?±?5, 540?±?5?Ma) yielding the oldest Neoproterozoic age (~600?Ma) for a paragneiss sample at a more northern location. The youngest Rb/Sr isochron age (~540?Ma) was obtained for a mica schist sample at a more southern location closer to the border of the Congo Craton. The ⁸⁷Rb/⁸⁶Sr whole rock-biotite ages are interpreted as cooling ages related to transpressional processes during exhumation. Therefore, several discrete metamorphic events related to the exhumation of the Yaounde Group were dated. It could be shown by Rb/Sr dating for the first time that these late tectonic processes occurred earlier at more distant northern locations of the Yaounde Group and lasted at least until early Cambrian (~540?Ma) more closely to the border of the Congo Craton.     

Structural and biological control of the Cenozoic epithermal uranium concentrations from the Sierra Pe?a Blanca, Mexico

Epithermal uranium deposits of the Sierra Pe?a Blanca are classic examples of volcanic-hosted deposits and have been used as natural analogs for radionuclide migration in volcanic settings. We present a new genetic model that incorporates both geochemical and tectonic features of these deposits, including one of the few documented cases of a geochemical signature of biogenic reducing conditions favoring uranium mineralization in an epithermal deposit. Four tectono-magmatic faulting events affected the volcanic pile. Uranium occurrences are associated with breccia zones at the intersection of fault systems. Periodic reactivation of these structures associated with Basin and Range and Rio Grande tectonic events resulted in the mobilization of U and other elements by meteoric fluids heated by geothermal activity. Focused along breccia zones, these fluids precipitated under reducing conditions several generations of pyrite and uraninite together with kaolinite. Oxygen isotopic data indicate a low formation temperature of uraninite, 45–55°C for the uraninite from the ore body and ～20°C for late uraninite hosted by the underlying conglomerate. There is geochemical evidence for biological activity being at the origin of these reducing conditions, as shown by low δ³⁴S values (～?24.5‰) in pyrites and the presence of low δ¹³C (～?24‰) values in microbial patches intimately associated with uraninite. These data show that tectonic activity coupled with microbial activity can play a major role in the formation of epithermal uranium deposits in unusual near-surface environments.     

Stable isotope geochemistry of the Archean Val-d‘Or (Canada) orogenic gold vein field

A systematic study of the auriferous quartz veins of the Val-dOr vein field, Abitibi, Quebec, Canada, demonstrates that the C, O, S isotope composition of silicate, carbonate, borate, oxide, tungstate and sulphide minerals have a range in composition comparable to that previously determined for the whole Superior Province. The oxygen isotope composition of quartz from early quartz–carbonate auriferous veins ranges from 9.4 to 14.4 whereas later quartz-tourmaline-carbonate veins have ¹⁸O_quartz values ranging from 9.2 to 13.8 . Quartz-carbonate veins have carbonate (¹⁸O: 6.9–12.5 ; ¹³C: –6.2– –1.9 ) and pyrite (³⁴S: 1.2 and 1.9 ) isotope compositions comparable to those of quartz-tourmaline-carbonate veins (¹⁸O: 7.9–11.7 ; ¹³C: –8.0 – –2.4 ; ³⁴S: 0.6–6.0 ). ¹⁸O_quartz values in quartz-tourmaline-carbonate veins have a variance comparable to analytical uncertainty at the scale of one locality, irrespective of the type of structure, the texture of the quartz or its position along strike, across strike or down-dip a vein. In contrast, the oxygen isotope composition of quartz in quartz-tourmaline-carbonate veins displays a regional distribution with higher ¹⁸O values in the south-central part of the vein field near the Cadillac Tectonic Zone, and which ¹⁸O values decrease regularly towards the north. Another zone of high ¹⁸O values in the northeast corner of the region and along the trace of the Senneville Fault is separated by a valley of lower ¹⁸O values from the higher values near the Cadillac Tectonic Zone. Oxygen isotope isopleths cut across lithological contacts and tectonic structures. This regional pattern in quartz-tourmaline-carbonate veins is interpreted to be a product of reaction with country rocks and mixing between (1) a deep-seated hydrothermal fluid of metamorphic origin with minimum ¹⁸O=8.5 , ¹³C=0.6 and ³⁴S=–0.4 , and (2) a supracrustal fluid, most likely Archean seawater with a long history of water-rock exchange and with maximum ¹⁸O=3.9 , ¹³ C=–5.6 and ³⁴S=5.0 .     

Mineral resources inventory in the northern part of haiti: A basic rationale for selecting areas of potential mining interest

Agriculture has always been the major source of income of the Republic of Haiti. Only in the late sixties did the Haitian Government decide to move toward industrialization and explotation of natural resources, but no reliable inventory of mineral potential was available. In June 1970 the Resources and Transport Division of the U.N. (now CNRET) undertook a structural analysis of the Caribbean with reference to defining favorable loci for ore disposition. One of the conclusions of this survey was that from the metallogenetic point of view, the Northern part of Haiti was a favorable area for prospecting for habe metal deposits, especially for copper. Those conclusions were acknowleadged with great enthusiams by the Haitian authorities, and they welcomed in July 1971 a UN technical adviser who outlined a first phase of exploration. Following this mission, a “Mineral exploration Project” was created by the Haitian Government with the cooperation of UNDP, and an area of 9000 km² was selected, based on structural, lithological, and metallogenetic reasons, as an exploration target. The most important aspects of this project were:Mineral Exploration—First Phase (1973–1974). The following operations were carried out by a small team: (a) photo interpretation at 1:50,000 and 1:200,000 scale, (b) geological reconnaissance at 1:50,000 scale, (c) geochemical reconnaissance (stream sediment) at 1:50,000 scale. The photo interpretation helped outline zones of particular structural interest and was followed up by ground control studies. Stream sediment geochemical reconnaissance was carried out over half of the project area, following the indications given by the photo geological interpretation. finally, combining all the data, five areas were selected for detailed follow up survey: (1) Terrier Rouge—Perche, (2) Vallieres, (3) Mont-Organise, (4) Limonade, (5) Gros Morne—Le Borgne.Mineral Exploration—Second Phase (1975–1976). The main zones of interest were reduced to a few hundred km² and porphyry copper type deposits appeared to be the most promising target. Detailed geological mapping (1:25,000 to 1:2,000) and soil geochemistry were carried out on the above mentioned five areas, the most promising appearing quickly to be Terrier Rouge-Perges, with porphyry-type copper mineralization. A geophysical survey (IP and Mag) confirmed the geochemical results. At the end of the second phase of exploration (December 1976) two of the five prospects of the Terrier Rouge area have been diamond drilled and appeared to be of potential economic interest. Because of the number and importance of the prospects discovered a third phase of exploration was deemed necessary with the purpose of continuing the detailed prospection work and drilling the other prospects. This third phase started in January 1977 and was expected to last until December 1979. This paper was presented at the International Geological Correlation Program (IGCP) Project 98: “Standards for Computer Applications in Resource Studies” held at Taita Hills, Kenya, November 8–15, 1977.     

Real-time sea-state surveillance with Skywave Radar

To extract sea-state information from the ionospherically distorted echoes received by a skywave radar, we use a signal-processing strategy that permits real-time decisions about the quality of incoming data. This paper explains the need for an on-line processor and describes some of its engineering details. We use an array processor to quickly compute all the spectra required to display ocean waveheight, as well as some indices of data quality, while the radar interrogates an ocean cell. The results are shown in a test using an experimental radar that mapped waveheight over its North Pacific coverage area. Coverage efficiency was 85 percent, and the radar's waveheight estimates averaged 2ft(0.6 m) higher than those forecast by a numerical model.     

Relicts of an intra-oceanic arc in the Sapi-Shergol mélange zone (Ladakh, NW Himalaya, India): implications for the closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean

In the Ladakh–Zanskar area, relicts of both ophiolites and paleo-accretionary prism have been preserved in the Sapi-Shergol mélange zone. The paleo-accretionary prism, related to the northward subduction of the northern Neo-Tethys beneath the Ladakh Asian margin, mainly consists of tectonic intercalations of sedimentary and blueschist facies rocks. Whole rock chemical composition data provide new constraints on the origin of both the ophiolitic and the blueschist facies rocks. The ophiolitic rocks are interpreted as relicts of the south Ladakh intra-oceanic arc that were incorporated in the accretionary prism during imbrication of the arc. The blueschist facies rocks were previously interpreted as oceanic island basalts (OIB), but our new data suggest that the protolith of some of the blueschists is a calc-alkaline igneous rock that formed in an arc environment. These blueschists most likely originated from the south Ladakh intra-oceanic arc. This arc was accreted to the southern margin of Asia during the Late Cretaceous and the buried portion was metamorphosed under blueschist facies conditions. Following oceanic subduction, the external part of the arc was obducted to form the south Ladakh ophiolites or was incorporated into the Sapi-Shergol mélange zone. The incorporation of the south Ladakh arc into the accretionary prism implies that the complete closure of the Neo-Tethys likely occurred by Eocene time.