Seasonal oceanic heat transports computed from an atmospheric model

Seasonal estimates of the oceanic poleward heat transport are obtained using a climate model that is a global atmospheric general circulation model on an 8° × 10° grid. The climate model is used to calculate the surface heat flux into each ocean grid point for each day of the year. The rate of ocean heat storage is calculated using climatological surface temperatures, mixed layer depths, and ice amounts. By assuming that the rate of change of heat storage in the deep ocean is spatially constant, the horizontal transports are calculated from the vertical fluxes and the upper ocean storage rates. The oceanic meridional transport for each latitude and for each ocean basin are derived, and results are compared with other calculations of the seasonal transports. In the Northern Hemisphere, comparisons between the simulated seasonal transports indicate that the annual variation is much greater in the Pacific than in the Atlantic.     

Ductile-to-brittle transition in shear during thrust sheet emplacement,Southern Appalachian thrust belt

Mesoscopic structures in anchimetamorphic (T = 200–300°C) strata of the Pulaski thrust sheet, Southern Appalachian thrust belt, developed in progressive, heterogeneous simple shear near the ductile-to-brittle transition. Shear (γ≤3) was localized in weak, anisotropic pelitic rocks (Rome Formation) along the base of this 5–11 km thick thrust sheet. Folds, which vary from upright and open to isoclinal and NW-facing, developed during ductile shearing and display a correlation between tightness and axial-surface dip. Movement along brecciated thrust zones, which evolved progressively from zones of greatest ductile strain, resulted in low-angle truncation of fold axis trends, coaxial refolding of earlier structures, and imbrication of the thrust sheet.Transient variations in fluid pressure (P_f) controlled the mechanical behavior of the thrust sheet. Systematic veins imply P_f >σ₃ + T (T = tensile strength) during ductile deformation, whereas later non-systematic vein arrays in high strain zones record periods of nearly hydrostatic stress. Elevated P_f, which led to fracturing, dilation, and fault initiation, appears confined to pelitic zones within the Rome Formation. This, coupled with decreasing temperature, resulted in the transition from ductile folding to brittle thrusting. Changing physical conditions probably reflect erosional unroofing during uplift and late Paleozoic thrust sheet emplacement.     

Application of the equations of radioactive growth and decay to geochronological models and explicit solution of the equations by Laplace transformation

A recently developed method of pore-fluid age determination assumes secular equilibrium in the ²³⁸U decay chain. The efficacy of this approximation is investigated using computer evaluations of the equations that give the time evolution of the ²³⁸U decay chain, i.e. the solution of the equations of radioactive growth and decay. This analysis is performed considering two alternative geochemical scenarios to that of secular equilibrium — only ²³⁸U present initially and ²³⁸U and ²³⁴U present initially. In addition, the effects of the ²³⁵U decay chain are also determined in a similar fashion. These particular examples were chosen to show that more sophisticated geochronological models for many dating applications can be developed using such computer calculations. To facilitate such analyses, a solution of the equations of radioactive growth and decay for an arbitrary initial condition is derived using the Laplace transformation method and matrix algebra. Other solutions — both general and special — that are found in some well-known textbooks are reviewed.     

Structural deformation and sedimentation in an active Caldera, Rabaul, Papua New Guinea

Recent seismic and tectonic activity in Rabaul Caldera, Papua New Guinea, suggests that magma is accumulating at a shallow depth beneath this partially submerged structure and that a new volcano may be developing. Changes in onshore elevation since 1971 (as much as 2 m on south Matupit Island) indicate that rapid and large-scale uplifts have occurred on the seafloor near the center of the caldera. The frequency of seismic events within the caldera has also increased during this period. Earthquake locations define an elliptical ring surrounding the center of this uplift within the caldera.A marine geophysical survey in 1982 by the U.S. Geological Survey's R/V “S.P. Lee” in Rabaul Caldera shows the development of a bulge in the seafloor near the center of the caldera. High-resolution seismic reflection profiles show that this bulge consists of two domal uplifts bounded and separated by two major north-south-trending fault zones. Deformed sediments overlie these zones; a prominent slump flanks the area of the bulge.Five major acoustic units were identified in the seismic reflection profiles: an acoustic basement and four sedimentary units consisting of irregularly layered, cross-layered, contorted, and well-layered sequences. The acoustic basement is probably composed of crystalline volcanic rocks, and the layered acoustic units are probably sediments, primarily ash deposited in different environments. The cross-layered, irregularly layered, and contorted units appear to have been deposited in a dynamic environment subjected to strong currents, seismicity, and/or mass wasting, while the well-layered units were deposited in a low-energy environment. Locally, well-layered sequences interfinger with the other sedimentary units, indicating a transitional environment that alternated between high-energy and low-energy depositional processes.A submarine channel cuts most of the acoustic units and appears to be the conduit for sediment transport out of the caldera; it occupies an older buried channel north of the caldera that is presently being exhumed. In the south, active erosion of well-layered sediments is taking place. What are believed to be several young volcanic cones also disrupt the depositional layers.We conclude that the bulge in the seafloor and the associated fault zones are a result of emplacement of magma at a shallow depth. Contorted sediment and slumps adjacent to the bulge are probably the result of uplift and seismic activity. The pattern of seismicity appears to reflect increased magma pressure at depth beneath the caldera floor. This activity may eventually lead to an eruption.     

Emission of gaseous carbon dioxide from salt-marsh sediments and its relation to other carbon losses

Rates of CO₂ emission from bare salt-marsh sediments in areas of short and tall formSpartina alterniflora were measured monthly for 1 yr. Maximum emission rates, as high as 325 ml CO₂m^?2h^?1, were observed during summer months, while minimum rates, 10.2 ml CO₂ m^?2h^?1, were observed during the winter. An exponential function of inverse soil temperature explained most of the seasonal variability, but other factors are involved in regulating CO₂ emissions as demonstrated by rates that were higher in spring than in late summer at equivalent temperatures. Annual CO₂ emissions from bare sediments were 27.3 and 18.6 mol C m^?2 yr^?1 in communities of short and tallS. alterniflora, respectively. It was estimated that losses of dissolved inorganic carbon from the turnover of pore water, up to 14.6 mol C m^?2 yr^?1 at the creek bank (tall,S. alterniflora) site, and diffusion of CO₂ from the root system ofS. alterniflora through the culms, 12.3 to 16.2 mol C m^?2 yr^?1, could also be important pathways of carbon loss from marsh sediments. If the internal flux of CO₂ from the root system through the culm is refixed within the leaves, then the observed rate of 9.8 μI CO₂ min^?1 cm^?2 of culm cross sectional area appears to make a small but significant contribution to total photosynthesis.     

Intertidal organisms of an industrialized estuary

A study of the intertidal organisms of the Clyde Estuary is being undertaken to assess the effects of changing levels of pollution and to relate to these and other changes the distribution of important winter flocks of waders and ducks.     

The distribution of total nitrogen in iron meteorites

Total nitrogen abundances in 123 iron meteorites have been determined by inert carrier-gas fusion extraction-gas chromatography. The median value for the iron meteorites was found to be 18 ppm N. The N contents of Sulfide inclusions are greater, in nine cases out of ten, than the corresponding metallic phase. The N content of the iron meteorites is positively correlated with germanium content. The effects of terrestrial weathering and heat treatment by man are discussed in relation to the N contents measured for certain specimens. A correlation between N and cooling rates was found, with lower cooling rates associated with greater N abundances.     

Simulation of artificial earthquakes

A procedure is developed for the simulation of artificial earthquake accelerograms, The time variation of amplitude and frequency content is preserved in the simulation procedure. Sixteen artificial earthquake accelerograms are simulated and compared with a target accelerogram. The time variation of amplitude and frequency content for 26 historical earthquake accelerograms is characterized.     

Stress reorientation during folding

Intermediate principal stress, ₂, is, for mechanical reasons, taken to be parallel to the statistical direction of fold axes and traces of thrust faults during evolution of fold and thrust belts. Regionally, maximum principal stress, ₁, and least, ₃, may be taken to be the directions of maximum shortening and maximum thickening of the section, respectively. Where crystalline basement is not involved in the deformation, maximum shortening is manifestly parallel to the top of the basement, or subhorizontal, and ₃ is, therefore, subvertical. While this stress system is grossly adequate on the scale of the fold and thrust belt, it fails locally, particularly in late stages of deformation. Sinuosity develops on all scales within the belt as deformation progresses. Individual fold axes tend to be straight lines in incipient stages of folding, as shown by unrolling folds, but commonly develop with increasing curvature during deformation. The curvature resulting during deformation is a measure of extension parallel to the axial direction, if the ends of the fold are fixed points. Thus, ₂ progressively decreases. With marked sinuosity, stress parellel to the axial direction can be reduced at a given depth below the magnitude of the weight of the overburden, originally ₃. Intermediate and least principal stresses switch position, and strike-slip faulting is favored where the deformational response is failure by shear fracture. The percent axial extension can be expressed in an equation that compares the final arcuate length with the original length. With a knowledge of the physical properties of the rock, the time in the evolution of the structure at which he stresses switch can be predicted, as well as the subsequent structural response.

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Zusammenfassung Die Richtung des intermediären Hauptstresses, ₂, wird aus mechanischen Gründen als parallel zu der statistischen Richtung der Faltenachsen und der Spuren der Überschiebungsflächen angenommen während der Entwicklung von Faltungs- und Überschiebungszonen. Regional können die Richtungen des maximalen Haupstresses, ₁, und des minimalen Hauptstresses, ₃, als Richtungen der größten Verkürzung, respektive der größten Verdickung des Querschnittes betrachtet werden. Wo der kristalline Untergrund nicht in den Deformationsvorgang einbezogen wird, ist die Richtung der maximalen Verkürzung offenbar parallel zur Kristallinoberfläche oder subhorizontal und ₃ somit subvertikal orientiert. Währenddessen im großen Maßstab diese Zuordnung der Hauptstreßrichtungen zu einer ganzen Faltungs- und Überschiebungszone vorgenommen werden kann, versagt sie im lokalen Bereich, vor allem in späten Phasen der Deformation. Bei fortschreitender Deformation entwickeln sich im Deformationsgürtel Bogenformen in verschiedenem Maßstab. Individuelle Faltenachsen neigen dazu, sich an geraden Linien auszubilden in frühen Stadien der Faltung, wie dies die Abwicklung von Falten zeigt. Sie entwickeln sich aber im allgemeinen während der weiteren Deformation mit zunehmend gebogener Achsenrichtung. Die resultierende Kurvatur ist ein Maß der Dehnung parallel zur Achsenrichtung, wenn die seitlichen Endpunkte der Falte Fixpunkte darstellen. In dieser Weise nimmt der Betrag von ₂ fortschreitend ab. Bei ausgeprägter Bogenform kann der Streß parallel zur Richtung der Faltenachse in einer bestimmten Tiefe reduziert werden bis zu einem Betrag, der unterhalb des Ausmaßes der Überlast, also ursprünglich ₃, liegt. Die Richtungen des intermediären und des kleinsten Hauptstresses wechseln ihre Positionen, und Blattverschiebungen werden begünstigt, wo die Deformation Scherbrüche erzeugt. Das Ausmaß der axialen Dehnung kann durch eine Gleichung ausgedrückt werden, welche die Länge des endgültigen Faltenbogens mit der ursprünglichen Länge der Falte verknüpft. Mit der Kenntnis der physikalischen Eigenschaften des Gesteins können sowohl der Zeitpunkt in der Entwicklung der Faltenstruktur, zu welchem die Hauptstreßrichtungen ihre Positionen wechseln, als auch die nachfolgende strukturelle Entwicklung bestimmt werden.

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Résumé La contrainte principale intermédiaire, ₂, est, pour des raisons mécaniques, considérée comme étant parallèle à la direction statistique des axes du pli et des traces de chevauchement durant l'évolution du pli et des zones de chevauchement. Régionalement, on peut supposer que les contraintes principales maximum, ₁, et minimum, ₃, suivent respectivement les directions du raccourcissement maximum et de l'épaississement maximum du profil. Là, où le soubassement cristallin n'est pas entrainé dans la déformation, le raccourcissement maximum est manifestement parallèle à la surface du soubassement, ou subhorizontal, et ₃ est, par conséquent, subverticale. Tant que l'échelle de ce système de contraintes correspond à peu près à celle du pli et de la zone de chevauchement, il change de direction localement, spécialement dans les derniers stades de la déformation. Une sinuosité se développe à toutes les échelles à l'intérieur de la zone, tandis que la déformation progresse. Les axes individuels du pli ont tendance à devenir des lignes droites dans les stades embryonnaires de la déformation, comme le montre le déroulement des plis, mais ordinairement ils se développent avec une courbure croissante pendant la déformation. La courbure qui en résulte durant la déformation est une mesure de l'extension parallèle à la direction axiale. Ainsi ₂ décroit progressivement. Avec une sinuosité prononcée, la contrainte parallèle à la direction axiale peut se réduire, à une profordeur donné au dessous du poids de la surcharge, originellement ₃. Les contraintes principales maximum et minimum échangent leur position, et la composante horizontale du rejet de la faille est alors favorisée là où la réaction à la déformation devient négligeable par suite de fracture de cisaillement. Le pourcentage de l'extension axiale peut s'exprimer par une équation qui compare la longueur de la courbe finale à la longueur originelle. Avec la connaissance des propriétés physiques des roches, on peut prévoir, le moment où les contraintes s'échangent durant l'évolution de la structure, ainsi que la réaction structurale qui en résulte.

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