Reuse of waste water: impact on water supply planning / Remploi de l'eau résiduaire: influence sur la planification des systèmes de distribution des eaux

Abstract

As the urban population of the world increases and demand on easily developable water supplies are exceeded, cities have recourse to a range of management alternatives to balance municipal water supply and demand. These alternatives range from doing nothing to modifying either the supply or the demand variable in the supply-demand relationship. The reuse or recycling of urban waste water in many circumstances may be an economically attractive and effective management strategy for extending existing supplies of developed water, for providing additional water where no developable supplies exist and for meeting water quality effluent discharge standards. The relationship among municipal, industrial and agricultural water use and the treatment links which may be required to modify the quality of a municipal waste effluent for either recycling or reuse purposes is described. A procedure is described for analysing water reuse alternatives within a framework of regional water supply and waste water disposal planning and management.     

Interannual variability of annual streamflow and the Southern Oscillation in Costa Rica

Abstract

This study illustrates the association between annual and seasonal streamflow characteristics on six Costa Rican rivers and the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). Annual discharge from rivers within the Pacific watershed are clearly positively associated with contemporary values of the SOI and experience significant reductions in both mean and variance in El Ninõ years. The considerable practical implications of this finding to a country in which over 60% of national electrical power comes from hydroelectric schemes is illustrated using quantile estimates from various models. Rivers draining towards the Caribbean show less clear and coherent patterns of associations. The observed associations with seasonal flows on some rivers appear to be the opposite of those on the Pacific, and may even vary during the course of a year at a site. The exact nature of the response seems to be closely related to the elevation of the gauge site. The larger the proportion of the basin at elevations above about 500–1000 m the greater the similarity to the Pacific pattern, suggesting that the marked topographic divide between the two coastal watersheds does not correspond to the divide in associations between streamflow and the SOI.     

τ-p SEISMIC DATA FOR VISCOELASTIC MEDIA – PART 1: MODELLING1

Viscoelastic modelling reveals that the interaction of compressional-wave velocity C_p, compressional-wave quality factor Q_p, shear-wave velocity C_s, shear-wave quality factor Q_s and Poisson's ratio as a function of time intercept τ and ray parameter p, is complicated; however, distinct, potentially diagnostic behaviours are seen for different combinations of viscoelastic parameters. Synthetic seismograms for three viscoelastic reservoir models show that variations in the Poisson's ratio produce visible differences when compared to the corresponding elastic synthetic seismograms; these differences are attributable to interaction of the elastic parameters with Q_p and Q_s. When the P-wave acoustic impedance contrast is small, viscoelastic effects become more apparent and more useful for interpretation purposes. The corresponding amplitude and net phase spectra reveal significant differences between the elastic and the viscoelastic responses. When P-wave reflectivities are large, they tend to dominate the total response and to mask the Q reflectivity effects. The attenuation effects are manifested as an amplitude decay that increases with both time and ray parameter. The sensitivity of the computed seismic responses for various combinations of viscoelastic parameters suggests the opportunity for diagnostic interpretation of τ-p seismic data. The interpretation of the viscoelastic parameters can permit a better understanding of the rock types and pore fluid distribution existing in the subsurface.     

Holocene glacial variations in Sarek National Park, northern Sweden

Detailed mapping of well-preserved moraine systems fronting 17 small alpine glaciers in Sarek National Park in Swedish Lapland reveals two Holocene intervals of prolonged glacier expansion, each involving a complex of minor fluctuations. The younger interval, which corresponds to the Little Ice Age, experienced advances that culminated about A.D. 1916–1920, 1880–1890, 1850–1860, 1800–1810, 1780, 1700–1720, 1680, 1650, and 1590–1620. The older expansion interval, which probably centered around 2500 ¹⁴C yr B.P., experienced several minor fluctuations spread through about 600 years.
Lichen data collected on moraine systems in Sarek are internally consistent from glacier to glacier. Lichen measurements on surfaces of known age in Sarek and nearby Kebnekaise match closely, allowing moraine correlations between these areas. Several older expansion intervals are recorded in the Kebnekaise Mountains. Taken together, the two sequences suggest that a series of prolonged expansion intervals, each similar to the Little Ice Age, has characterized the Holocene in Lapland. Fluctuations of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet in Sweden suggest that this series of Little-Ice-Age events extends back into the late Weichsel in the form of the Younger Dryas and Oldest Dryas stadials.     

Facies, geometry and geological significance of Late Ordovician (early Caradocian) coral bioherms: Lourdes Formation, western Newfoundland

Late Ordovician coral bioherms in the Lourdes Formation of western Newfoundland exhibit a complex mixing of architectural elements, including framework, boundstone and suspension deposits. The bioherms occur within a narrow (16 m) stratigraphic interval, and a prominent unconformity truncates the interval of bioherm growth and tops of many of the bioherms. The buildups developed along a carbonate ramp. They occur isolated and in groups, individuals in groups are aligned in parallel orientation. The sizes of the bioherms range from small (50–100 cm) coral piles to columnar and dome‐shaped masses (1–15 m); however, topographic relief was never more than ≈1 m. Bioherm construction reflects: (i) stacking of the tabulate coral Labyrinthites chidlensis, and less common stromatoporoids; (ii) accumulation of microbial‐stromatoporoid boundstone and suspension deposits within shelter cavities between corals; and (iii) detrital bioherm‐flank skeletal grainstone beds. Trypanites borings are common in the tops of coral heads. The bioherms exhibit three growth‐development stages: (i) seafloor stabilization, wherein rare, abraded coral colonies lie scattered within pelmatozoan/skeletal grainstone lenses; (ii) colonization, wherein corals (L. chidlensis), rare stromatoporoids (Labechia sp.), and other biota (bryozoans) produced a bioherm overlying the basal sediment base; and (iii) diversification, which is marked by a more diverse range of fauna and flora as well as occurrence of shelter‐cavity deposits. The diversification stage usually makes up more than 70% of a bioherm structure, and, in some defines multiple periods of start‐up and shut‐down of bioherm growth. The latter is defined by bored omission surfaces and/or deposition of inter‐bioherm sediment. The Lourdes bioherms have a similar ecological structure, biotic diversity and depositional environment to patch reefs in the equivalent Carters Limestone in Tennessee. The mixture of coral stacking and boundstone as architectural elements identify an Early Palaeozoic transition of reef‐design development along shallow‐water platforms that began to displace the muddy (boundstone, bafflestone) carbonate buildups more typical of the Early and Middle Ordovician time.     

SOIL–PILE–BRIDGE SEISMIC INTERACTION: KINEMATIC AND INERTIAL EFFECTS. PART I: SOFT SOIL

A substructuring method has been implemented for the seismic analysis of bridge piers founded on vertical piles and pile groups in multi-layered soil. The method reproduces semi-analytically both the kinematic and inertial soil–structure interaction, in a simple realistic way. Vertical S-wave propagation and the pile-to-pile interplay are treated with sufficient rigor, within the realm of equivalent-linear soil behaviour, while a variety of support conditions of the bridge deck on the pier can be studied with the method. Analyses are performed in both frequency and time domains, with the excitation specified at the surface of the outcropping (‘elastic’) rock. A parameter study explores the role of soil–structure interaction by elucidating, for typical bridge piers founded on soft soil, the key phenomena and parameters associated with the interplay between seismic excitation, soil profile, pile–foundation, and superstructure. Results illustrate the potential errors from ignoring: (i) the radiation damping generated from the oscillating piles, and (ii) the rotational component of motion at the head of the single pile or the pile-group cap. Results are obtained for accelerations of bridge deck and foundation points, as well as for bending moments along the piles. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Diagenesis of sandstones in the back-arc basins of the western Pacific Ocean

ABSTRACT Sandstones occur in back-arc basins of the western Pacific at DSDP sites 299 (Sea of Japan), 297 (northern Shikoku Basin), 445 and 446 (Daito-Ridge-and-Basin Province), 453 (Mariana Trough), 286 (New Hebrides Basin) and 285 (South Fiji Basin). These sandstones are dominantly volcaniclastic arenites derived from andesitic island arcs. The degree of sandstone diagenesis is dependent on original composition, burial rate, heat flow history of the basin, and timing of sandstone deposition with respect to rifting processes and associated high heat flow.
Sandstones containing a larger proportion of volcaniclastic components showed more diagenetic effects than sandstones containing a significant volume of other rock fragments and mineral components. Sandstones deposited during early stages of rifting (sites 445, 446) with a slow burial rate and high crustal heat flow showed the greatest degree of downhole diagenetic change. These diagenetic changes include early pore-space reduction and rim cementation by clay minerals followed later by calcite, and subsequent pore-fill cementation by clinoptilolite, heulandite, analcite and later calcite. Replacement of recognizable volcanic rock fragments by chert, calcite and zeolites was observed in the deepest part of the hole. Sandstones deposited after rifting under conditions of associated lower heat flow showed considerably less diagenetic changes, particularly if burial was rapid.
The high heat flow associated with earliest rifting, associated fluid circulation driven by thermal convection, and slow burial rate controlled the diagenetic history of these sandstones. Thus, timing of sandstone deposition with rifting stage and associated burial rates were key factors in controlling sandstone diagenesis in back-arc basins.     

Subduction Style Magmatism in a Non-subduction Setting: the Colville Igneous Complex, NE Washington State, USA

The Colville Igneous Complex is located within the Eocene MagmaticBelt of the North American Cordilleran interior. It straddlesthe US–Canadian border in northeast Washington and southernBritish Columbia. The complex consists of three intrusive andtwo extrusive phases, the first extrusive phase being contemporaneouswith the latter two intrusive phases. As a consequence of sub-solidusre-equilibration in the plutonic rocks, this study concentrateson the two extrusive phases, the Sanpoil Volcanic Formationand the Klondike Mountain Formation. The Sanpoil Volcanic Formationconsists of andesites, dacites and rare trachyandesites (SiO₂= 55–70 wt %) exhibiting a slight decrease in total alkalis(Na₂O + K₂O) with increasing silica. The Klondike Mountain Formationconsists of basalts, basaltic andesites, andesites, dacitesand rhyolites (SiO₂ = 51–75 wt %) with total alkalis increasingwith increasing silica. The calc-alkaline affinity of the rocksof the Colville Igneous Complex, coupled with the presence ofa ‘subduction signature’ of enriched large ion lithophileelements (LILE) and depleted high field strength elements (HFSE),has traditionally been attributed to petrogenesis in a subduction-relatedmagmatic arc, the ‘Challis Arc’. New trace and rareearth element and isotopic data (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr_i,     

WEIGHTED STACKING OF SEISMIC DATA USING AMPLITUDE-DECAY RATES AND NOISE AMPLITUDES1

The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of seismic reflection data can be significantly enhanced by stacking. However, stacking using the arithmetic mean (straight stacking) does not maximize the S/N ratio of the stack if there are trace-to-trace variations in the S/N ratio. In this case, the S/N ratio of the stack is maximized by weighting each trace by its signal amplitude divided by its noise power, provided the noise is stationary. We estimate these optimum weights using two criteria: the amplitude-decay rate and the measured noise amplitude for each trace. The amplitude-decay rates are measured relative to the median amplitude-decay rate as a function of midpoint and offset. The noise amplitudes are measured using the data before the first seismic arrivals or at late record times. The optimum stacking weights are estimated from these two quantities using an empirical equation. Tests with synthetic data show that, even after noisy-trace editing, the S/N ratio of the weighted stack can be more than 10 dB greater than the S/N ratio of the straight stack, but only a few decibels more than the S/N ratio of the trace equalized stack. When the S/N ratio is close to 0 dB, a difference of 4 dB is clearly visible to the eye, but a difference of 1 dB or less is not visible. In many cases the S/N ratio of the trace-equalized stack is only a few decibels less than that of the optimum stack, so there is little to be gained from weighted stacking. However, when noisy-trace editing is omitted, the S/N ratio of the weighted stack can be more than 10 dB greater than that of the trace-equalized stack. Tests using field data show that the results from straight stacking, trace-equalized stacking, and weighted stacking are often indistinguishable, but weighted stacking can yield slight improvements on isolated portions of the data.     

Origin of anhedral Sr-rich calcite in deep-water mixed sediment, north-east Australia

At burial depths of 800-1000 m, within the epicontinental Queensland Trough of north-east Australia (ODP Site 823), microcrystalline inter- and intraskeletal mosaics of anhedral (loaf-shaped, rounded) calcite have Sr²⁺ values ranging from below microprobe detection limits (<150 ppm) to 8100 ppm. Host rocks are well lithified, fine-grained mixed sediment to clayey wackestone and packstone of Middle and Late Miocene age. Petrography demonstrates that calcite precipitation has spanned shallow to deep burial, overlapping formation of framboidal pyrite in the upper 50 m; shallow-burial dolomitization (<300 m); and dedolomitization during sediment consolidation and incipient chemical compaction at greater (>400–500 m) depths. Petrographic observations illustrate that the calcite microfabric formed through coalescing crystal growth resulting from one or a combination of displacive growth in clay, porphyroid neomorphism of aragonite/vaterite, and clay replacement by calcite. Sr²⁺ mean concentrations in calcite between depths of 800 and 1000 m are similar to an expected equilibrium pore-water concentration, using a D^sr of 0.06, and may indicate active calcite precipitation. However, Sr²⁺ variation (2000–5000 ppm) within and among crystals, and concentrations that range well above predicted equilibrium values for a given depth, illustrate either variable Sr²⁺ retention during recrystallization of shelf-derived aragonite (and authigenic local vaterite) or relative uptake of Sr²⁺ during calcite precipitation with burial. Within the context of calcite formation during burial to 1 km, diagenetic attributes that affect the latter process include increased concentrations of pore-water Sr²⁺ with depth associated with aragonite recrystallization/dissolution; upward migration of Sr-rich pore water; and increased D^Sr related to local variation in precipitation/recrystallization rates, differential crystal sector growth rates and/or microvariation in aragonite distribution.