The drumlin field at Múlajökull, Iceland, is considered to be an active field in that partly and fully ice‐covered drumlins are being shaped by the current glacier regime. We test the hypothesis that the drumlins form by a combination of erosion and deposition during successive surge cycles. We mapped and measured 143 drumlins and studied their stratigraphy in four exposures. All exposures reveal several till units where the youngest till commonly truncates older tills on the drumlin flanks and proximal slope. Drumlins inside a 1992 moraine are relatively long and narrow whereas drumlins outside the moraine are wider and shorter. A conceptual model suggests that radial crevasses create spatial heterogeneity in normal stress on the bed so that deposition is favoured beneath crevasses and erosion in adjacent areas. Consequently, the crevasse pattern of the glacier controls the location of proto‐drumlins. A feedback mechanism leads to continued crevassing and increased sedimentation at the location of the proto‐drumlins. The drumlin relief and elongation ratio increases as the glacier erodes the sides and drapes a new till over the landform through successive surges. Our observations of this only known active drumlin field may have implications for the formation and morphological evolution of Pleistocene drumlin fields with similar composition, and our model may be tested on modern drumlins that may become exposed upon future ice retreat. 相似文献
Pronounced positive decadal-scale temperature anomalies occurred in the Arctic region in the first half of the twentieth century, an episode known as the early twentieth century warming (ETCW). Analyzing a 3,000-year unperturbed climate simulation performed with the Max Planck Institute Earth System Model, we demonstrate that internal variability of the Northern Hemisphere climate system is sufficient to reproduce warm events matching the observed ETCW. We perform a superposed epoch analysis on simulated data and identify 26 Arctic warming episodes compatible with the ETCW. The simulated events reproduce, in their ensemble average, magnitude as well as spatial and temporal extent of the observed ETCW. In individual realizations, the ETCW-like events indicate that different patterns of internally generated decadal Arctic warming are possible, including pan-Arctic warming events. We investigate the dynamics that typically lead to the simulated warming events: positive oceanic heat transport anomalies that form in the North Atlantic initialize the warming events and trigger an ocean-ice-albedo feedback in the Barents Sea region. The consequent reduction in sea-ice extent leads to enhanced multi-year surface warming through strengthened ocean heat release to the atmosphere. The oceanic heat transport anomalies reduce to pre-event levels around the year of the maximum warming. However, the warming events typically lasts for another 5–7 years until the sea-ice extent recovers to pre-event conditions. 相似文献
The Lavanttal Fault Zone (LFZ) is generally considered to be related to Miocene orogen-parallel escape tectonics in the Eastern
Alps. By applying thermochronological methods with retention temperatures ranging from ~450 to ~40°C we have investigated
the thermochronological evolution of the LFZ and the adjacent Koralm Complex (Eastern Alps). 40Ar/39Ar dating on white mica and zircon fission track (ZFT) thermochronology were carried out on host rocks (HRs) and fault-related
rocks (cataclasites and fault gouges) directly adjacent to the unfaulted protolith. These data are interpreted together with
recently published apatite fission track (AFT) and apatite (U-Th)/He ages. Sample material was taken from three drill cores
transecting the LFZ. Ar release spectra in cataclastic shear zones partly show strongly rejuvenated incremental ages, indicating
lattice distortion during cataclastic shearing or hydrothermal alteration. Integrated plateau ages from fault rocks (~76 Ma)
are in parts slightly younger than plateau ages from HRs (>80 Ma). Incremental ages from fault rock samples are in part highly
reduced (~43 Ma). ZFT ages within fault gouges (~65 Ma) are slightly reduced compared to the ages from HRs, and fission tracks
show reduced lengths. Combining these results with AFT and apatite (U-Th)/He ages from fault rocks of the same fault zone
allows the recognition of distinct faulting events along the LFZ from Miocene to Pliocene times. Contemporaneous with this
faulting, the Koralm Complex experienced accelerated cooling in Late Miocene times. Late-Cretaceous to Palaeogene movement
on the LFZ cannot be clearly proven. 40Ar/39Ar muscovite and ZFT ages were probably partly thermally affected along the LFZ during Miocene times. 相似文献
Subsidence analysis of 16 wells in the Austrian Molasse basin documents major spatial and temporal changes in tectonic subsidence as well as a late-stage surface uplift. The timing of the main phase of tectonic subsidence shifted from early Oligocene in the western part of the peripheral foreland to the early Miocene in the eastern part. These temporal and spatial changes in tectonic subsidence reflect a change from oblique dextral to sinistral convergence between the Alpine nappe stack and its foreland. The main phase of sediment accumulation was delayed to the early Miocene and led to the infill of the basin and a major second, sediment-load driven phase of basement subsidence. Sediment accumulation rates in the basin reflect the build-up of topography in the Alpine mountain chain. Since approximately 6 Ma a pronounced regional uplift of the entire Molasse basin has taken place, marking the transition from lateral extrusion to orthogonal contraction within the Alpine system and deep-seated changes in geodynamic boundary conditions, possibly due to delamination of previously thickened lithosphere. Surface uplift is contemporaneous with similar processes in extra-Alpine Central Europe, where it is interpreted to reflect intra-plate stress changes. 相似文献
The epithermal Shila-Paula Au–Ag district is characterized by numerous veins hosted in Tertiary volcanic rocks of the Western Cordillera (southern Peru). Field studies of the ore bodies reveal a systematic association of a main E–W vein with secondary N55–60°W veins—two directions that are also reflected by the orientation of fluid-inclusion planes in quartz crystals of the host rock. In areas where this pattern is not recognized, such as the Apacheta sector, vein emplacement seems to have been guided by regional N40°E and N40°W fractures. Two main vein-filling stages are identified. stage 1 is a quartz–adularia–pyrite–galena–sphalerite–chalcopyrite–electrum–Mn silicate–carbonate assemblage that fills the main E–W veins. stage 2, which contains most of the precious-metal mineralization, is divided into pre-bonanza and bonanza substages. The pre-bonanza substage consists of a quartz–adularia–carbonate assemblage that is observed within the secondary N45–60°W veins, in veinlets that cut the stage 1 assemblage, and in final open-space fillings. The two latter structures are finally filled by the bonanza substage characterized by a Fe-poor sphalerite–chalcopyrite–pyrite–galena–tennantite–tetrahedrite–polybasite–pearceite–electrum assemblage. The ore in the main veins is systematically brecciated, whereas the ore in the secondary veins and geodes is characteristic of open-space crystallization. Microthermometric measurements on sphalerite from both stages and on quartz and calcite from stage 2 indicate a salinity range of 0 to 15.5 wt% NaCl equivalent and homogenization temperatures bracketed between 200 and 330°C. Secondary CO2-, N2- and H2S-bearing fluid inclusions are also identified. The age of vein emplacement, based on 40Ar/39Ar ages obtained on adularia of different veins, is estimated at around 11 Ma, with some overlap between adularia of stage 1 (11.4±0.4 Ma) and of stage 2 (10.8±0.3 Ma). A three-phase tectonic model has been constructed to explain the vein formation. Phase 1 corresponds to the assumed development of E–W sinistral shear zones and associated N60°W cleavages under the effects of a NE–SW shortening direction that is recognized at Andean scale. These structures contain the stage 1 ore assemblage that was brecciated during ongoing deformation. Phase 2 is a reactivation of earlier structures under a NW–SE shortening direction that allowed the reopening of the preexisting schistosity and the formation of scarce N50°E-striking S2-cleavage planes filled by the stage 2 pre-bonanza minerals. Phase 3 coincides with the bonanza ore emplacement in the secondary N45–60°W veins and also in open-space in the core of the main E–W veins. Our combined tectonic, textural, mineralogical, fluid-inclusion, and geochronological study presents a complete model of vein formation in which the reactivation of previously formed tectonic structures plays a significant role in ore formation. 相似文献
青藏高原的形成与隆升是多期次的,尤其早更新世晚期的快速隆升对全球气候变化、我国西部盆-山地貌形成与荒漠化的出现有着重大影响,这已成为近年地学研究的热点问题.通过对高原东北缘-柴达木盆地西部地区角度不整合面上下地层中红色泥岩36Cl 断代法定年,首次测定该事件发生在早更新世晚期至中更新世(1.54~0.28 Ma B.P.)之间.结合敦煌盆地同时代地层(0.837 Ma B.P.和1.142 Ma B.P)的低角度掀斜现象,以及前人在塔里木盆地、柴达木盆地、吐鲁番-哈密盆地、酒西盆地的研究结果,认为早更新世晚期,受青藏高原快速隆升北向挤压作用的影响,我国西北地区发生了一次重要的构造事件,造成大范围的挤压变形与山脉隆升,这对我国西北地区构造格架的最终形成和晚期油气运移成藏具有重要意义. 相似文献
The interior of the Tauern Window exposes underplated Penninic continental lithosphere and the overlying obducted Penninic oceanic crust within a large antiformal dome in the internal zone of the Eastern Alps. These units have been affected by a polyphase deformation history. Generally, three deformation events are distinguished. D1 is related to underplating of, and top-to-the-N nappe stacking within, the Penninic continental units of the Tauern Window. Deformation stage D2 is interpreted to reflect the subsequent continent collision between the Penninic continental units and the European foreland, D3 is related to the formation of the dome structure within the Tauern Window. During thickening of continental lithosphere and nappe stacking (D1), and subsequent intracontinental shortening (D2), these tectonic units have been ductilely deformed close to a plane strain geometry. Conditions for the plastic deformation of the main rock-forming mineral phases (quartz, feldspar, dolomite, calcite) have prevailed during all three phases of crustal deformation. Generally, two types of quartz microstructures that are related to D1 are distinguished within the Tauern Window: (a) Equilibrated and annealed fabrics without crystallographic preferred orientations (CPO) have only been observed in the central part of the southeastern Tauern Window, corresponding with amphibolite-grade metamorphic conditions. (b) In the northeastern and central part of the Tauern Window microstructures are characterized by quartz grains that show equilibrated shape fabrics, but well preserved CPO with type-I cross girdle distributions, indicating a deformation geometry close to plane strain. During D2, two types of quartz microstructures are distinguished, too: (a) Quartz grains that show equilibrated shape fabrics, but well-preserved CPO. The c-axes distributions generally are characterized by type-I cross girdles, locally by type-II cross girdles, and in places, oblique single girdle distributions. (b) A second type of quartz microstructure is characterized by highly elongated grains and fabrics typical for dislocation creep and grain-boundary migration, and strong CPO. This type is restricted to the southern sections of the western and eastern Tauern Window. The c-axis distributions show type-I cross girdles in the western part of the Tauern Window and single girdles in the southeastern part. In the western part of the Tauern Window, a continuous transition from type (b) microstructures in the south to type (a) microstructures in the north is documented. The microstructural evolution also documents that the dome formation in the southeastern and western Tauern Window has already started during D2 and has continued subsequent to the equilibration during amphibolite to greenschist facies metamorphism. D3 is restricted to distinct zones of localized deformation. D3-related quartz fabrics are characterized by the formation of ribbon grains; the c-axes show small-circle distributions around the Z-axis of the finite-strain ellipsoid. During exhumation and doming (D3), deformation occurred under continuously decreasing temperatures. 相似文献
Theoretical and Applied Climatology - Spatial precipitation datasets that are long-term consistent, highly resolved and extend over several decades are an increasingly popular basis for modelling... 相似文献
Microdiamonds offer several advantages as a resource estimation tool, such as access to deeper parts of a deposit which may be beyond the reach of large diameter drilling (LDD) techniques, the recovery of the total diamond content in the kimberlite, and a cost benefit due to the cheaper treatment cost compared to large diameter samples. In this paper we take the first step towards local estimation by showing that micro-diamond samples can be treated as a regionalised variable suitable for use in geostatistical applications and we show examples of such output. Examples of microdiamond variograms are presented, the variance-support relationship for microdiamonds is demonstrated and consistency of the diamond size frequency distribution (SFD) is shown with the aid of real datasets. The focus therefore is on why local microdiamond estimation should be possible, not how to generate such estimates. Data from our case studies and examples demonstrate a positive correlation between micro- and macrodiamond sample grades as well as block estimates. This relationship can be demonstrated repeatedly across multiple mining operations. The smaller sample support size for microdiamond samples is a key difference between micro- and macrodiamond estimates and this aspect must be taken into account during the estimation process. We discuss three methods which can be used to validate or reconcile the estimates against macrodiamond data, either as estimates or in the form of production grades: (i) reconcilliation using production data, (ii) by comparing LDD-based grade estimates against microdiamond-based estimates and (iii) using simulation techniques.