Direct observations of low-energy solar electrons associated with a type III solar radio burst

A highly anisotropic packet of solar electron intensities was observed on 6 April 1971 with a sensitive electrostatic analyzer array on the Earth-orbiting satellite IMP-6. The anisotropies of intensities at electron energies of several keV were factors 10 favoring the expected direction of the interplanetary magnetic lines of force from the Sun. The directional, differential intensities of solar electrons were determined over the energy range 1–40 keV and peak intensities were 10² cm^–2 s^–1 sr^–1 eV^–1 at 2–6 keV. This anisotropic packet of solar electrons was detected at the sattelite for a period of 4200 s and was soon followed by isotropic intensities for a relatively prolonged period. This impulsive emission was associated with the onsets of an optical flare, soft X-ray emission and a radio noise storm at centimeter wavelengths on the western limb of the Sun. Simultaneous measurements of a type III radio noise burst at kilometric wavelengths with a plasma wave instrument on the same satellite showed that the onsets for detectable noise levels ranged from 500 s at 178 kHz to 2700 s at 31.1 kHz. The corresponding drift rate requires a speed of 0.15c for the exciting particles if the emission is at the electron plasma frequency. The corresponding electron energy of 6 keV is in excellent agreement with the above direct observations of the anisotropic electron packet. Further supporting evidence that several-keV solar electrons in the anisotropic packet are associated with the emission of type III radio noise beyond 50R is provided by their time-of-arrival at Earth and the relative durations of the radio noise and the solar electron packet. Electron intensities at E 45 keV and the isotropic intensities of lower-energy solar electrons are relatively uncorrelated with the measurements of type III radio noise at these low frequencies. The implications of these observations relative to those at higher frequencies, and heliocentric radial distances 50R , include apparent deceleration of the exciting electron beam with increasing heliocentric radial distance.Research supported in part by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under contracts NAS5-11039 and NAS5-11074 and grant NGL16-001-002 and by the Office of Naval Research under contract N000-14-68-A-0196-0003.     

Spectral analyses of solar photospheric fluctuations

Residual intensity fluctuation measurements within the wings of the 5183.6 Mgi b₁ line, obtained from two, high-resolution, high-dispersion, Sacramento Peak Observatory spectrograms, have been subtracted from intensity fluctuations in the adjacent continuum in order to isolate fluctuations associated exclusively with line formation. The useable spectral range for studying these lineformation fluctuations is restricted to wavelengths between 1040 and 7170 km because the subtraction increases the relative importance of noise and large-scale photographic variations across the spectrograms could not be completely removed. Power and cross-power (coherence and phase) spectra proved to be valuable diagnostic tools in isolating line-formation fluctuations.Over this spectral range, the line-formation fluctuations are characterized by flat power spectra as compared to those for continuum fluctuations, appreciable fluctuation rms relative to that for continuum fluctuations, and the necessity to multiply the wing fluctuations by a factor 0.95 _min 1.00 to most effectively isolate these fluctuations (Figures 3 and 4). That continuum fluctuations are modified in shape but otherwise not drastically changed in the line wings explains the flat spectrum. The relative rms's vary from 0.34 in the inner wing to 0.22 in the outer. The range of possible values for _min results from uncertainties in the photographic density-residual intensity calibration.     

Transient simulations,empirical reconstructions and forcing mechanisms for the Mid-holocene hydrological climate in southern Patagonia

This study investigates the atmospheric circulation in transient climate simulations with a coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (GCM) for the mid-Holocene (MH) period 7–4.5 ka BP driven with combinations of orbital, solar and greenhouse gas forcings. The focus is on southern South America. Statistical downscaling models are derived from observational data and applied to the simulations to estimate precipitation in south-eastern Patagonia during the MH. These estimates are compared with lake level estimates for Laguna Potrok Aike (LPA) from sediments. Relative to pre-industrial conditions (i.e. 1550–1850), which show extraordinarily high lake levels, the proxy-based reconstructed lake levels during the MH are lower. The downscaled simulated circulation differences indicate higher LPA precipitation during the MH from March to August, higher annual means, and reduced precipitation from September to February. Thus the reconstructed lower LPA lake levels can not be explained solely by the simulated precipitation changes. Possible reasons for this discrepancy are discussed. Based on proxy data from southern South America hypotheses have also been proposed on the latitudinal position of the southern hemispheric westerlies (SHWs). In agreement with some of these hypotheses our simulations show an increased seasonal cycle of the latitudinal position of the SHWs during the MH, which can be explained by the orbital forcing. The simulations also show stronger SHWs over southern Patagonia during austral summer and weaker SHWs during winter. The downscaling model associates weaker SHWs with increased precipitation in the LPA region. However, this relationship is only moderate, and therefore the downscaling model does not support the assumption of a strong link between mean SHWs and precipitation over south-eastern Patagonia, which is the basis of many proxy-based hypotheses about the SHWs.     

Measurement of Ambient,Interstitial, and Residual Aerosol Particles on a Mountaintop Site in Central Sweden using an Aerosol Mass Spectrometer and a CVI

The Aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer (Q-AMS) was coupled with a counterflow virtual impactor (CVI) for the first time to measure cloud droplet residuals of warm tropospheric clouds on Mt. Åreskutan in central Sweden in July 2003. Operating the CVI in different operational modes generated mass concentration and species-resolved mass distribution data for non-refractory species of the ambient, interstitial, and residual aerosol. The ambient aerosol measurements revealed that the aerosol at the site was mainly influenced by long-range transport and regional photochemical generation of nitrate and organic aerosol components. Four different major air masses were identified for the time interval of the experiment. While two air masses that approached the site from northeastern Europe via Finland showed very similar aerosol composition, the other two air masses from polar regions and the British Islands had a significantly different composition. During cloud events the larger aerosol particles were found to be activated into cloud droplets. On a mass basis the activation cut-off diameter was approximately 150 nm for nitrate and organics dominated particles and 200 nm for sulfate dominated particles. Generally nitrate and organics were found to be activated into cloud droplets with higher efficiency than sulfate. While a significant fraction of the nitrate in ambient particles was organic nitrates or nitrogen-containing organic species, the nitrate found in the cloud droplet residuals was mainly ammonium nitrate. After passage of clouds the ambient aerosol size distribution had shifted to smaller particle sizes due to the predominantly activation of larger aerosol particles without a significant change in the relative composition of the ambient aerosol.     

Quantifying the impact of chemicals on stable carbon and oxygen isotope values of raw pollen

Purification protocols to extract pollen from lake sediments contain chemicals that alter the carbon and oxygen pollen-isotope values according to pollen characteristics and family affiliation. Modern (raw) pollen of broad-leaved (Alnus glutinosa, Betula pendula, Carpinus betulus, Corylus avellana, Fagus sylvatica and Quercus robur) and coniferous tree species (Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris) were treated with potassium hydroxide (KOH), hydrofluoric acid (HF), sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) to test the impact on δ¹³C_pollen and δ¹⁸O_pollen and assess the applicability in purification protocols. Pollen of broad-leaved and coniferous trees reacted differently to chemical exposure, but response patterns are generally alike. Alterations of δ¹³C_pollen values vary between + 1.0‰ (B. pendula, NaClO-treatment) and −5.0‰ (P. sylvestris, H₂SO₄-treatment). The δ¹³C_pollen values of raw and chemically treated samples seem to be related after treatments with KOH, NaClO and HF, whereas the application of H₂SO₄ led to inconsistent changes among species. The impact of chemicals on δ¹⁸O_pollen are more diverse and offsets range between +1.1‰ (C. avellana, NaClO-treatment) and −17.9‰ (P. sylvestris, H₂SO₄-treatment). In general, the use of isotope-altering chemicals in purification protocols should be brought to a minimum, but the application of KOH and NaClO seems mostly unproblematic before δ¹³C_pollen and δ¹⁸O_pollen analysis.     

Sedimentology of a Late Quaternary lacustrine record from the south-eastern Carpathian Basin

The Upper Pleistocene geoarchives in the south-eastern Carpathian Basin are represented predominantly by loess–palaeosol records. In 2015, a 10 m sediment core composed of clay-rich lacustrine sediments was recovered by vibracoring a dry lake basin located between the Vršac Mountains (Serbia) and the Banat Sands in the south-eastern Carpathian Basin; a location relevant for placing regional archaeological results in a palaeoenvironmental context. Here, we present results from geoelectrical prospection and a lithostratigraphic interpretation of this sequence supported by a detailed granulometric study supplemented by ostracod analysis. An age model based on luminescence dating is discussed against sedimentological proxy data and its implication for palaeoenvironmental change. The cores show a stratigraphy of lighter ochre-coloured and darker greyish sediment, related to the deposition of clay and silt trapped in an aquatic environment. Geophysical measurements show ~20 m thick lacustrine sediments. The grain-size distributions including the variability in fine clay are indicative of a lacustrine environment. Fine particles were brought into the depositional environments by aquatic input and settled from suspension; also, direct dust input is constrained by grain-size results. Riverine input and aeolian dust input interplayed at the locality.     

Flood hazard mapping for data-scarce and ungauged coastal river basins using advanced hydrodynamic models,high temporal-spatial resolution remote sensing precipitation data,and satellite imageries

Natural Hazards - This paper presents an integrated approach to simulate flooding and inundation for small- and medium-sized coastal river basins where measured data are not available or scarce. By...     

Experimental study on dynamic characteristics of granular materials under axial high-frequency vibration

The fundamental understanding of the behavior of granular materials by the effect of vibration is necessary to properly address a number of engineering issues, such as long-term settlement of high-speed railway, vibratory pile driving in sandy stratum, and earthquake-induced geotechnical disaster. Triaxial compression tests of dry Pingtan sand were carried out by a modified triaxial apparatus, where axial high-frequency vibration was super-imposed on the specimen at pre-peak, peak, and post-peak stress states during monotonic shearing. The influences of vibration conditions, confining pressure, and the initial relative density on the vibration-induced responses of Pingtan sand are mainly considered. It is shown that the super-imposed vibration leads to significant deviatoric stress reduction and vibro-induced additional axial strain. This owes to the fact that the static inter-particle friction turns to dynamic friction, and consequently, the frictional resistance has a considerable reduction when vibration is applied to the sand specimen. The vibration-induced stress–strain behavior of sand specimen is characterized into three states by two thresholds concerning vibration intensity and confining pressure: (1) stable state, (2) vibro-compression state and (3) vibro-instability state. For the vibro-compression state, the deviatoric stress reduction has a positive linear correlation with the increase in vibration intensity, while the vibro-induced additional axial strain follows a power-law increase with vibration intensity. Given a vibration condition, the deviatoric stress reductions and the vibro-induced additional axial strains at pre-peak, peak, and post-peak stress state follow a descending order. Besides, the influences of vibration on shear strength and critical state were also discussed.

     

An examination of midwestern US cities’ preparedness for climate change and extreme hazards

Disasters continue to have a dramatic impact on lives, livelihoods and environments communities depend on. In response to these losses, the global community has developed various theories, assessment methodologies and policies aimed at reducing global losses. A contemporary outcome of these interventions is to build the disaster resilience. However, despite the disaster resilience-building endeavours espoused by policies, theories and methodologies, very little progress is being made in reducing disaster losses. This paper argues that a possible reason behind the limitations of current resilience-building policies and methodologies could be that most of these policies are based a mechanistic scientific paradigm that places an emphasis on system components that are perceived to build resilience and not the function of systems as a whole. This often leads to resilience-building initiatives that are based on a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach. This paper argues for the use of a complex adaptive systems approach to building resilience. This approach argues that contextual factors within different social systems will have a nonlinear affect on disaster resilience-building efforts. Therefore, it is crucial to move away from ‘one-size-fits-all’ approaches to more flexible approaches to building resilience. These hypotheses are tested by means of a correlation statistical analysis of agricultural communities in Southern Africa. Results of this analysis indicate that unique resilience profiles are evident in almost all of the communities studied. This indicates that resilience is not the same for everybody, and that resilience-building endeavours should be flexible enough to be adapted for different contexts.