Seismic Reflection Characteristics of Naturally-Induced Subsidence Affecting Transportation

High-resolution seismic reflections have been used effectively to investigate sinkholes formed from the dissolution of a bedded salt unit found throughout most of Central Kansas. Surface subsidence can have devastating effects on transportation structures. Roads, rails, bridges, and pipeliues can even be dramatically affected by minor ground instability. Areas susceptible to surface subsidence can put public safety at risk. Subsurface expressions significantly larger than surface depressions are consistently observed on seismic images recorded over sinkholes in Kansas. Until subsidence reaches the ground surface, failure appears to be controlled by compressional forces evidenced by faults with reverse orientation. Once a surface depression forms or dissolution of the salt slows or stops, subsidence structures are consistent with a tensional stress environment with prevalent normal faults. Detecting areas of rapid subsidence potential, prior to surface failure, is the ultimate goal of any geotechnical survey where the ground surface is susceptible to settling. Seismic reflection images have helped correlate active subsidence to dormant paleofeatures, project horizontal growth of active sinkholes based on subsurface structures, and appraise the risk of catastrophic failure.     

Liquidus Equilibria in the System K2O-Na2O-Al2O3-SiO2-F2O-1-H2O to 100 MPa: I. Silicate-Fluoride Liquid Immiscibility in Anhydrous Systems

Liquidus relations in the four-component system Na₂O–Al₂O₃–SiO₂–F₂O_–1were studied at 0· 1 and 100 MPa to define the locationof fluoride–silicate liquid immiscibility and outlinedifferentiation paths of fluorine-bearing silicic magmas. Thefluoride–silicate liquid immiscibility spans the silica–albite–cryoliteand silica–topaz–cryolite ternaries and the haplogranite-cryolitebinary at greater than 960°C and 0· 1–100 MPa.With increasing Al₂O₃ in the system and increasing aluminum/alkalication ratio, the two-liquid gap contracts and migrates fromthe silica liquidus to the cryolite liquidus. The gap does notextend to subaluminous and peraluminous melt compositions. Forall alkali feldspar–quartz-bearing systems, the miscibilitygap remains located on the cryolite liquidus and is thus inaccessibleto differentiating granitic and rhyolitic melts. In peralkalinesystems, the magmatic differentiation is terminated at the albite–quartz–cryoliteeutectic at 770°C, 100 MPa, 5 wt % F and cation Al/Na =0· 75. The addition of topaz, however, significantlylowers melting temperatures and allows strong fluorine enrichmentin subaluminous compositions. At 100 MPa, the binary topaz–cryoliteeutectic is located at 770°C, 39 wt % F, cation Al/Na 0·95, and the ternary quartz–topaz–cryolite eutecticis found at 740°C, 32 wt % F, 30 wt % SiO₂ and cation Al/Na 0· 95. Such location of both eutectics enables fractionationpaths of subaluminous quartz-saturated systems to produce fluorine-rich,SiO₂-depleted and nepheline-normative residual liquids. KEY WORDS: silicate melt; granite; rhyolite; fluorine; liquid immiscibility     

西藏当雄南部约54Ma辉长岩-花岗岩杂岩的岩石成因及意义

近年来在拉萨地块南部识别的多处基性岩浆活动对揭示地幔源区成分和相关动力学问题提供了重要线索.本文对拉萨-当雄一带原认为是早白垩世茶苍卡辉长岩-浦迁花岗岩杂岩中获得了始新世幔源岩浆活动记录.研究区出露的3种岩石类型及其U-Pb锆石年龄分别是正长闪长岩、碱性角闪二长花岗岩(54.0±0.3Ma)和钾玄质碱性辉长岩(53.8±0.4Ma).其中辉长岩锆石εHf(t)值为-6.6～ -4.2、Hf模式年龄t(O)M为0.88 ～0.97Ga;二长花岗岩εHf(t)为-10.2～ -6.5,Hf地壳模式年龄tDMC为1.5 ～ 1.7Ga.三类岩石都具有富碱、富钾特征,它们具相似的稀土和微量元素含量,均显示大离子亲石元素和Pb富集、高场强元素Nb、Ta、Ti和P亏损等特征.闪长岩和花岗岩的Sr和Nd同位素特征相似,87Sr/86 Sr比值为0.711 ～0.712,εNd(t)为-9.1 ～ -7.1;而辉长岩分别是0.708和-4.8～ -4.9.本文与拉萨地块南部和中部已有结果共同表明,新生代岩浆岩的分布与成分显示了与俯冲带极性吻合的规律性变化特征,即从雅鲁藏布缝合带向北,岩石的富集组分逐渐增加,越过洛巴堆-米拉山断裂带进入具有地壳基底的中部拉萨地块后,岩石则明显增加了地壳富集组分,很好显示了基底成分对岩浆作用的控制.拉萨地块南部大约47Ma开始出现的富集组分,很可能是中部拉萨地块富集的古老地壳基底物质参与和控制的结果,而与印度大陆地壳物质的俯冲无关.茶苍卡辉长岩可能来源于受到早期俯冲来源流体交代的富集岩石圈地幔物质的部分熔融,而茶苍卡角闪二长花岗岩主要来源于古老地壳物质的重熔,但是有幔源物质参与.茶苍卡辉长岩不同于典型岛弧玄武岩,而与板内玄武岩或伸展背景下形成的玄武质岩石类似,其成因很可能与大约52Ma的特提斯洋壳板片断离和岩浆大爆发有关.     

Reflection point sideslip and smear in imaging below dipping anisotropic media

Dipping anisotropic clastic strata are ubiquitous in fold and thrust belts. Geological structures below these strata will be mispositioned laterally and vertically on seismic images if we do not properly correct for seismic anisotropy during migration. The magnitude of this lateral mispositioning of a target structure varies with source‐receiver offset, so reflection points will be smeared in the final stacked image. Raytracing demonstrates the lateral‐position and smear phenomena when imaging structures below tilted transversely isotropic media. Analysis of the raytracing results predicts the quantity of lateral‐position error and reflection‐point smear on a seismic image. We created numerical‐model seismic data to show reflection‐point smear on synthetic seismic images and to evaluate the accuracy of the predictions from raytracing.     

Tomographic measurements of pore filling at infiltration fronts

For certain porous media and initial conditions, constant flux infiltrations show a saturation profile which exhibits overshoot. This overshoot is the cause of gravity driven fingering, cannot be described by standard models of unsaturated flow, and is likely controlled by the exact nature of the pore filling at the initial front. Here we report synchrotron X-ray micro-tomography measurements of the porous medium and measure which pores are filled by water and air at the initial wetting front as a function of flux. We find that at high fluxes all the pores are filled with water; for intermediate fluxes, the pores along the edge of the column remain unsaturated; and for low fluxes the pores in the bulk of the experimental column remain unsaturated. This suggests that the unsaturated overshoot conditions observed at higher fluxes are primarily an edge effect of the column. The results can help delineate the correct continuum models that can capture overshoot and gravity driven fingering.     

A study of small aftershocks of the Oroville California, earthquake sequence of August 1975

The August 1, 1975 earthquake near Oroville, California, occurred along the Sierra foothills in a region characterized by occasional moderate earthquakes. Several earthquakes in the general region, including those in 1869, 1875, and 1909, appear to have had significant aftershock sequences. The general character of the aftershock sequence of the Oroville earthquake thus does not appear to be anomalous when measured against the known seismic history of this area.

Four smoked-paper micro-earthquake recorders were deployed immediately following the occurrence of the main earthquake to attempt to define the structural associations of the principal earthquake by location and analysis of aftershocks. Focal locations for 243 micro-earthquakes in the magnitude range of 1–3 were selected from the 30-day period (August 2–September 1), during which monitoring was continued. The aftershocks clearly define a planar surface striking north–south and dipping west at 62° from the surface to a depth of about 12 km. Aftershocks during the first two days of monitoring defined a surface of active faulting of approximately 100 km². Extension of this surface both to the north and south began on August 5 at focal depths of 5–10 km, resulting in a total ruptured area of approximately 125 km². The number of aftershocks per day decreased at the rate oft^−1.1, but the decay curve was punctuated by several secondary aftershock sequences. No. direct relationship between the aftershock sequence and the presence of Oroville Reservoir was observed.     

The angular momentum-vs-mass relation and the distribution of mass ratios for visual binary systems

The investigation of the angular momentum vs mass relation for binary stars is completed with a study of the 847 systems contained in theFourth Catalog of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars. Because bothJ andM of a visual binary depend steeply on the distance to the system (5th and 3rd powers, respectively), and many of the distances are not well known, the study makes use of an auxiliary parameterR which is independent of distance and proportional toJM ^–5/3.R appears to be uncorrelated withM for the 789 systems for which both can be determined. The non-correlation implies thatJ M ^5/3, expected from Kepler's third law, provides a better fit to the visual binaries than doesJ M ², predicted by some more complex considerations.The distribution functionf(q=M ₂/M₁) of mass ratios for the visual binaries results as a byproduct of the investigation. It peaks extremely sharply towardq=1.0 (much more so than for spectroscopic binaries). Because most visual binaries are wide enough to consist of stars that condensed independently (and so that can be thought of as chosen at random from an initial mass function), one expects the realf(q) to rise toward low ratios. Observational selection against the discovery and study of systems with large magnitude differences between the components must be very large indeed to account for the discrepancy between expectation and observation. The alternative is a mechanism for formation of wide binaries that favours equal components. The distribution of mass ratios for eclipsing binaries is given in an appendix. It peaks strongly atq=0.6–0.75 and largely reflects processes of angular momentum, mass, and energy exchange between the stars in contact systems.     

Vertical seismic profiling using distributed acoustic sensing with scatter-enhanced fibre-optic cable at the Cu–Au New Afton porphyry deposit,British Columbia,Canada

Wireline logs and vertical seismic profile data were acquired in two boreholes intersecting the main mineralized zone at the Cu–Au New Afton porphyry deposit, Canada, with the objectives of imaging lithological contacts, fault zones that may have acted as conduits that channelled the mineralization, and alteration zones. Log data provide physical rock properties for the main lithologies and alteration zones. Calliper logs reveal many faults and caved-in zones generally indicating rocks with low integrity at the borehole wall. The preponderance of these zones, as indicated by the logs, suggests that their response may dominate the seismic-reflection wavefield. Outside fault zones, compressional and shear-wave velocities exhibit significant variability due to porosity, the heterogeneity of volcanic fragmental rocks and alteration. Distributed acoustic sensing was used to acquire vertical seismic profiling data in the two boreholes surveyed with wireline logs. Straight and helically wound fibre-optic cables housed standard fibres and a fibre engineered to increase the intensity of backscattering at the distributed acoustic sensing interrogator. Standard and engineered optical fibres placed in the two boreholes were daisy-chained together to form two 5-km-long continuous fibres that were interrogated at once with two interrogators. A new generation of interrogator connected to the engineered fibres provided field data with lower noise level and higher signal-to-noise ratio. These data with higher signal-to-noise ratio from straight fibre-optic cable were processed and used for depth imaging. Depth images benefitted from new migration weights that account for the directional sensitivity of the straight fibre-optic cable and limit the extent of migration artefacts. Migration results show several reflectors with shallow dips to the northwest, some explained by faults intersecting the surveyed boreholes. The main sub-vertical lithological and alteration contacts at New Afton generated downgoing reflections that were not considered in the migration.