Vague cognitive regions in geography and geographic information science

Cognitive regions are regions in the mind, reflecting informal ways individuals and cultural groups organize their understanding of earth landscapes. Cognitive region boundaries are typically substantially vague and their membership functions are substantially variable – the transition from outside to inside the region is imprecise or vague, and different places within the region are not equally strong or clear as exemplars of the region. Methods for assessing and cartographically depicting cognitive regions, as with other vague geographic regions, have traditionally implied an inappropriate level of boundary sharpness and membership uniformity, such as when boundaries are mapped as precise lines. Research in recent decades has explored methods for assessing and depicting boundary vagueness and membership variability, either within or across individuals, but has still assumed homogeneity and regularity in the vagueness and variability. In this article, we present two studies that assess the cognitive regions of ‘Northern’ and ‘Southern’ California, and, for comparison, ‘Northern’ and ‘Southern’ Alberta. The first study uses a standard boundary-drawing task; the second uses a novel task in which participants rate cells of a high-resolution grid laid over an outline map. This technique allows us to assess and depict vagueness and nonuniformity that is heterogeneous and irregular across different areas. Differences in the conceptualization of ‘Northern’ and ‘Southern’ regions in California, as compared to those in Alberta, point to thematic influences on cognitive regions in California but not in Alberta. As is often true with cognitive regions, Northern and Southern California are about attitude, not just latitude.     

Interannual variability in the biochemical composition of newly hatched larvae of the spider crab Maja brachydactyla (Decapoda,Majidae)

The spider crab Maja brachydactyla is an important commercial species in Europe and supports intensive fisheries in the NE Atlantic. A field survey was performed to assess long‐term and consecutive interannual (2005–2010) variation of the biochemical composition of newly hatched larvae of M. brachydactyla. Larval biochemical profiles differed significantly among years, with pronounced differences being recorded in 2010. Differences among batches of newly hatched larvae were mainly explained by the contribution of triacylglycerols and, to a lesser degree, by protein and lipid content. The use of different nutrition indices is discussed. The biochemical composition of newly hatched larvae from M. brachydactyla was highly variable, even though surveyed broodstock was obtained from the same local population and was always sampled during the same season. The unpredictable biochemical profiles of newly hatched larvae may condition their survival and recruitment. This largely overlooked aspect of larval variability should be considered in future fisheries management strategies and captive production of marine organisms that still rely on wild seeds.     

Seafloor distribution and last glacial to postglacial activity of mud volcanoes on the Calabrian accretionary prism,Ionian Sea

Mud volcanoes (MVs) are abundant along the eastern Mediterranean subduction zones, recording mud breccia extrusion over long timescales (10⁶ years), but to date relatively few have been recognised in the northern Ionian Sea on the Calabrian accretionary prism (CAP). In the present study, the seafloor distribution and recent activity of MVs is investigated across a 35,600 km² sector of the CAP using a regional acoustic dataset (multibeam bathymetric and backscatter imagery, integrated with subbottom profiles) locally ground-truthed by sediment cores. A total of 54 MVs are identified across water depths of 150–2,750 m using up to four geophysical criteria: distinctive morphology, high backscatter, unstratified subbottom facies and, in one case, a hydroacoustic flare. Fourteen MVs are identified from 3–4 criteria, of which five have been previously proven by cores containing mud breccia beneath up to 1.6 m of hemipelagic sediments (Madonna dello Ionio MVs 1–3, Pythagoras MV and the newly named Sartori MV), while nine others are identified for the first time (Athena, Catanzaro, Cerere, Diana, Giunone, Minerva, ‘right foot’, Venere 1 and 2). Forty other as yet unnamed MVs are inferred from 1–2 geophysical criteria (three from distinctive morphology alone). All but one possible MV lie on the inner plateau of the CAP, landwards of the Calabrian Escarpment in a zone up to 120 km wide that includes the inner pre-Messinian wedge and the fore-arc basins, where they are interpreted to record the ascent from depth of overpressured fluids that interacted with tectonic structures and with evaporitic or shale seals within the fore-arc basins. The rise of fluids may have been triggered by post-Messinian out-of-sequence tectonism that affected the entire pre-Messinian prism, but Plio-Quaternary sedimentation rates and depositional styles support the inference that significant mud volcanism has taken place only on the inner plateau. Sedimentation rates across the CAP applied to a 12 khz sonar detection depth of 225 cm imply that all MVs with backscatter signatures (50 of 54) have erupted mud breccias within the last 56 ka, and within the last 12.5 ka in the fore-arc basins. Ages of eruption estimated from the depth of cored mud breccias at five MVs, and a seismo-stratigraphic relationship at a sixth, indicate episodes at the last glacial maximum ca. 20 ka BP and during the postglacial period. Eruptive episodes within the Calabrian MV province constitute recurrent geohazards, separated by longer periods of quiescent (subdued) fluid seepage that are likely to support gas hydrate formation and chemosynthetic ecosystems.     

The importance of reduced meat and dairy consumption for meeting stringent climate change targets

For agriculture, there are three major options for mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions: 1) productivity improvements, particularly in the livestock sector; 2) dedicated technical mitigation measures; and 3) human dietary changes. The aim of the paper is to estimate long-term agricultural GHG emissions, under different mitigation scenarios, and to relate them to the emissions space compatible with the 2 °C temperature target. Our estimates include emissions up to 2070 from agricultural soils, manure management, enteric fermentation and paddy rice fields, and are based on IPCC Tier 2 methodology. We find that baseline agricultural CO₂-equivalent emissions (using Global Warming Potentials with a 100 year time horizon) will be approximately 13 Gton CO₂eq/year in 2070, compared to 7.1 Gton CO₂eq/year 2000. However, if faster growth in livestock productivity is combined with dedicated technical mitigation measures, emissions may be kept to 7.7 Gton CO₂eq/year in 2070. If structural changes in human diets are included, emissions may be reduced further, to 3–5 Gton CO₂eq/year in 2070. The total annual emissions for meeting the 2 °C target with a chance above 50 % is in the order of 13 Gton CO₂eq/year or less in 2070, for all sectors combined. We conclude that reduced ruminant meat and dairy consumption will be indispensable for reaching the 2 °C target with a high probability, unless unprecedented advances in technology take place.     

A high-resolution ocean-atmosphere coupled downscaling of the present climate over California

A fully coupled regional ocean-atmosphere model system that consists of the regional spectral model and the regional ocean modeling system for atmosphere and ocean components, respectively, is applied to downscale the present climate (1985–1994) over California from a global simulation of the Community Climate System Model 3.0 (CCSM3). The horizontal resolution of the regional coupled modeling system is 10 km, while that of the CCSM3 is at a spectral truncation of T85 (approximately 1.4°). The effects of the coupling along the California coast in the boreal summer and winter are highlighted. Evaluation of the sea surface temperature (SST) and 2-m air temperature climatology shows that alleviation of the warm bias along the California coast in the global model output is clear in the regional coupled model run. The 10-m wind is also improved by reducing the northwesterly winds along the coast. The higher resolution coupling effect on the temperature and specific humidity is the largest near the surface, while the significant impact on the wind magnitude appears at a height of approximately 850-hPa heights. The frequency of the Catalina Eddy and its duration are increased by more than 60 % in the coupled downscaling, which is attributed to enhanced offshore sea-breeze. Our study indicates that coupling is vital to regional climate downscaling of mesoscale phenomena over coastal areas.     

Temperature response to future urbanization and climate change

This study examines the impact of future urban expansion on local near-surface temperature for Sydney (Australia) using a future climate scenario (A2). The Weather Research and Forecasting model was used to simulate the present (1990–2009) and future (2040–2059) climates of the region at 2-km spatial resolution. The standard land use of the model was replaced with a more accurate dataset that covers the Sydney area. The future simulation incorporates the projected changes in the urban area of Sydney to account for the expected urban expansion. A comparison between areas with projected land use changes and their surroundings was conducted to evaluate how urbanization and global warming will act together and to ascertain their combined effect on the local climate. The analysis of the temperature changes revealed that future urbanization will strongly affect minimum temperature, whereas little impact was detected for maximum temperature. The minimum temperature changes will be noticeable throughout the year. However, during winter and spring these differences will be particularly large and the increases could be double the increase due to global warming alone at 2050. Results indicated that the changes were mostly due to increased heat capacity of urban structures and reduced evaporation in the city environment.     

Geophysical exploration on the subsurface geology of La Garrotxa monogenetic volcanic field (NE Iberian Peninsula)

We applied self-potential (SP) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to the exploration of the uppermost part of the substrate geology and shallow structure of La Garrotxa monogenetic volcanic field, part of the European Neogene–Quaternary volcanic province. The aim of the study was to improve knowledge of the shallowest part of the feeding system of these monogenetic volcanoes and of its relationship with the subsurface geology. This study complements previous geophysical studies carried out at a less detailed scale and aimed at identifying deeper structures, and together will constitute the basis to establish volcanic susceptibility in La Garrotxa. SP study complemented previous smaller-scale studies and targeted key areas where ERT could be conducted. The main new results include the generation of resistivity models identifying dykes and faults associated with several monogenetic cones. The combined results confirm that shallow tectonics controlling the distribution of the foci of eruptive activity in this volcanic zone mainly correspond to NNW–SSE and accessorily by NNE–SSW Neogene extensional fissures and faults and concretely show the associated magmatic intrusions. These structures coincide with the deeper ones identified in previous studies, and show that previous Alpine tectonic structures played no apparent role in controlling the loci of this volcanism. Moreover, the results obtained show that the changes in eruption dynamics occurring at different vents located at relatively short distances in this volcanic area are controlled by shallow stratigraphical, structural and hydrogeological differences underneath these monogenetic volcanoes.     

Diversity and Habitat Distribution of Birds in Coastal Marshes and Comparisons with Surrounding Upland Habitats in Southeastern South America

We studied variation in bird assemblages with plant associations for three different coastal marshes from Southeastern South America (SESA) and assessed how marsh bird assemblages related to nearby upland bird assemblages. We surveyed bird species and plant structure along the tidal gradient of each locality from the low tide level to the upper habitats bordering coastal marshes. Twenty species frequently used coastal marshes, including relatively few migratory species. We found that birds occurring in SESA coastal marshes do not have distributions constrained to coastal marshes. Nonetheless, four bird assemblages were recognized in association with vegetation types and/or sites. Among the recorded coastal marsh species, the bay-capped wren-spinetail (Spartonoica maluroides) is both the most frequent and the most habitat constrained. Bird richness increases steadily along the tidal gradient associated with the increase in vegetation structure, suggesting that bird richness is directly explained by vegetation and indirectly by the physical conditions influencing vegetation structure. Results highlight the importance of SESA middle marshes as habitat for conservation of some threatened SESA grassland birds.     

Relationship between Hypoxia and Macrobenthic Production in Chesapeake Bay

Human development has degraded Chesapeake Bay's health, resulting in an increase in the extent and severity of hypoxia (≤2 mg O₂ l^-1). The Bay's hypoxic zones have an adverse effect on both community structure and secondary production of macrobenthos. From 1996 to 2004, the effect of hypoxia on macrobenthic production was assessed in Chesapeake Bay and its three main tributaries (Potomac, Rappahannock, and York Rivers). Each year, in the summer (late July???early September), 25 random samples of the benthic macrofauna were collected from each system, and macrobenthic production in the polyhaline and mesohaline regions was estimated using Edgar's allometric equation. Fluctuations in macrobenthic production were significantly correlated with dissolved oxygen. Macrobenthic production was 90 % lower during hypoxia relative to normoxia. As a result, there was a biomass loss of ~7,320–13,200 metric tons C over an area of 7,720 km², which is estimated to equate to a 20 % to 35 % displacement of the Bay's macrobenthic productivity during the summer. While higher consumers may benefit from easy access to stressed prey in some areas, the large spatial and temporal extent of seasonal hypoxia limits higher trophic level transfer, via the inhibition of macrobenthic production. Such a massive loss of macrobenthic production would be detrimental to the overall health of the Bay, as it comes at a time when epibenthic and demersal predators have high-energy demands.     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S167498711400067X

The Proterozoic Bamble Sector, South Norway, is one of the world＇s classic amphiboliteto granulite- facies transition zones. It is characterized by a well-developed isograd sequence, with isolated ＇granulite-facies islands＇ in the amphibolite-facies portion of the transition zone. The area is notable for the discovery of C02-dominated fluid inclusions in the granolite-facies rocks by Jacques Touter in the late 1960＇s, which triggered discussion of the role of carbonic fluids during granulite genesis. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge of the Bamble Sector, with an emphasis on the Arendal-Froland-Nelaug-Tvedestrand area and off shore islands （most prominantly Tromay and Hisoy） where the transition zone is best developed. After a brief overview of the history of geological research and mining in the area, aspects of sedimentary, metamorphic and magmatic petrology of the Bamble Sector are discussed, including the role of fluids. Issues relevant to current geotectonic models for SW Scandinavia, directly related to the Bamble Sector, are discussed at the end of the review.