Observations of vertical ground accelerations exceeding gravity during the 1997 Umbria-Marche (central Italy) earthquakes

We found extensive evidence that the vertical ground accelerations produced during the largest shock (M = 6.0) of the 1997 Umbria-Marche earthquake sequence exceeded 1g in two areas close to the heavily-damaged villages of Annifo and Colle Croce. This evidence comes from the striking observation of thousands of freshly fractured and broken rocks and stones in these areas. Some of the broken stones lie isolated on soft detritic soil while others had been previously piled up, probably a long time agoto clear the fields for farming. The freshness of the cuts and fractures and the consistency of the observations for thousands of rocks and stones in these areas indicate that these rocks were thrown upwards during the earthquake, with breakage occurring at the time of impact. Ground motion calculations consistent with the static deformation inferred from GPS and interferometry data, show that the broken stones and rocks are found in the zone where the strongest shaking took place during the earthquake and that most of the shaking there was vertical.     

Water relation characteristics ofAlhagi sparsifolia and consequences for a sustainable management

Water relation characteristics of the desert legumeAlhagi sparsifolia were investigated during the vegetation period from April to September 1999 in the foreland of Qira oasis at the southern fringe of the Taklamakan Desert, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China. The seasonal variation of predawn water potentials and of diurnal water potential indicated thatAlhagi plants were well water supplied over the entire vegetation period. Decreasing values in the summer months were probably attributed to increasing temperatures and irradiation and therefore a higher evapotranspirative demand. Data from pressure-volume analysis confirmed thatAlhagi plants were not drought stressed and xylem sap flow measurements indicated thatAlhagi plants used large amounts of water during the summer months. Flood irrigation had no influence on water relations inAlhagi probably becauseAlhagi plants produced only few fine roots in the upper soil layers. The data indicate thatAlhagi sparsifolia is a drought-avoiding species that utilizes ground water by a deep roots system, which is the key characteristic to adjust the hyper-arid environment. Because growth and survival ofAlhagi depends on ground water supply, it is important that variations of ground water depth are kept to a minimum. The study will provide a theoretical basis for the restoration and management of natural vegetation around oasis in arid regions.

     

Ambient Changes in Tracer Concentrations from a Multilevel Monitoring System in Basalt

Starting in 2008, a 4‐year tracer study was conducted to evaluate ambient changes in groundwater concentrations of a 1,3,6‐naphthalene trisulfonate tracer that was added to drill water. Samples were collected under open borehole conditions and after installing a multilevel groundwater monitoring system completed with 11 discrete monitoring zones within dense and fractured basalt and sediment layers in the eastern Snake River aquifer. The study was done in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy to test whether ambient fracture flow conditions were sufficient to remove the effects of injected drill water prior to sample collection. Results from thief samples indicated that the tracer was present in minor concentrations 28 days after coring, but was not present 6 months after coring or 7 days after reaming the borehole. Results from sampling the multilevel monitoring system indicated that small concentrations of the tracer remained in 5 of 10 zones during some period after installation. All concentrations were several orders of magnitude lower than the initial concentrations in the drill water. The ports that had remnant concentrations of the tracer were either located near sediment layers or were located in dense basalt, which suggests limited groundwater flow near these ports. The ports completed in well‐fractured and vesicular basalt had no detectable concentrations.     

Linking Tarim Basin sea retreat (west China) and Asian aridification in the late Eocene

The Tarim Basin in western China formed the easternmost margin of a shallow epicontinental sea that extended across Eurasia and was well connected to the western Tethys during the Paleogene. Climate modelling studies suggest that the westward retreat of this sea from Central Asia may have been as important as the Tibetan Plateau uplift in forcing aridification and monsoon intensification in the Asian continental interior due to the redistribution of the land‐sea thermal contrast. However, testing of this hypothesis is hindered by poor constraints on the timing and precise palaeogeographic dynamics of the retreat. Here, we present an improved integrated bio‐ and magnetostratigraphic chronological framework of the previously studied marine to continental transition in the southwest Tarim Basin along the Pamir and West Kunlun Shan, allowing us to better constrain its timing, cause and palaeoenvironmental impact. The sea retreat is assigned a latest Lutetian–earliest Bartonian age (ca. 41 Ma; correlation of the last marine sediments to calcareous nannofossil Zone CP14 and correlation of the first continental red beds to the base of magnetochron C18r). Higher up in the continental deposits, a major hiatus includes the Eocene–Oligocene transition (ca. 34 Ma). This suggests the Tarim Basin was hydrologically connected to the Tethyan marine Realm until at least the earliest Oligocene and had not yet been closed by uplift of the Pamir–Kunlun orogenic system. The westward sea retreat at ca. 41 Ma and the disconformity at the Eocene–Oligocene transition are both time‐equivalent with reported Asian aridification steps, suggesting that, consistent with climate modelling results, the sea acted as an important moisture source for the Asian continental interior.     

Theoretical meteorology and the operational meteorologist

Abstract

Values of incoming solar and long‐wave radiation measured at the vessel Quadra during the three phases of GATE are used to assess the daily performance of three models, one for solar and two for long‐wave radiation. The solar radiation model, which uses data on precipitable water and cloud amount at three levels in the atmosphere performed satisfactorily during the first phase but gave poor results in the other two phases when cumulonimbus became more dominant. Both the flux‐emissivity approach using measured and interpolated Upper air data and Paltridge's empirical procedure produced estimates of long‐wave radiation which compared very closely with the measurements.     

Petrogenesis of voluminous mid-Tertiary ignimbrites of the Sierra Madre Occidental,Chihuahua, Mexico

The mid-Tertiary ignimbrites of the Sierra Madre Occidental of western Mexico constitute the largest continuous rhyolitic province in the world. The rhyolites appear to represent part of a continental magmatic arc that was emplaced when an eastward-dipping subduction zone was located beneath western Mexico.In the Batopilas region of the northern Sierra Madre Occidental the mid-Tertiary Upper Volcanic sequence is composed predominantly of rhyolitic ignimbrites, but volumetrically minor lava flows as mafic as basaltic andesite are also present. The basaltic andesite to rhyolite series is calc-alkalic and contains 1% K₂O at 60% SiO₂. Trace element abundances of a typical ignimbrite with 73% SiO₂ are Sr 225 ppm, Rb 130 ppm, Y 32 ppm, Th 12 ppm, Zr 200 ppm, and Nb 15 ppm. The entire series plots as coherent and continuous trends on variation diagrams involving major and trace elements, and the trends are distinct from those of geographicallyassociated rocks of other suites. We interpret these and other geochemical variations to indicate that the rocks are comagmatic. Mineral chemistry, Sr isotopic data, and REE modelling support this interpretation.Least squares calculations show that the major element variations are consistent with formation of the basaltic andesite to rhyolite series by crystal fractionation of observed phenocryst phases in approximate modal proportions. In addition, calculations modelling the behavior of Sr with the incompatible trace element Th favor a fractional crystallization origin over a crustal anatexis origin for the rock series. The fractionating minerals included plagioclase (> 50%), and lesser amounts of Fe-Ti oxides, pyroxenes, and/or hornblende. The voluminous ignimbrites represent no more than 20% of the original mass of a mantle-derived mafic parental magma.     

A tertiary lamprophyre dike with high pressure xenoliths and megacrysts from Wiedemanns Fjord,East Greenland

Lamprophyric dikes, mainly of camptonite/monchiquite affinities occur in the Wiedemanns Fjord area. One example contains a complex assemblage of olivine-orthopyroxene-chrome spinel nodules, megacrysts of kaersutite, diopside, strongly reverse-zoned green salite and various spinel phases. Microprobe analyses are presented for all these phases and for the lilac-coloured titansalites and strongly-coloured kaersutites of the groundmass. It is concluded that these minerals record evolution under various P, T and oxidation regimes during the formation of a lamprophyric parent magma. The nodules provide evidence for deep fractures in this area supposedly associated with early rifting in the North Atlantic.     

Kenntnis der Randstrukturen des Witwatersrand-Beckens im nördlichen Oranje-Freistaat-Goldfeld (Südafrika)

Zusammenfassung Eine Analyse der Randstrukturen des Witwatersrand-Beckens im nördlichen Oranje-Freistaat-Goldfeld zeigt, daß das tektonische Bild der Beckenrandregion nacheinander durch verschiedene Deformationsakte von unterschiedlichem Charakter geprägt worden ist. Auf eine Einengungsphase von spät-Witwatersrand-Alter, die zur Bildung einer randlichen Aufrichtungszone und zum Aufreißen eines Systems von 'normalen und antivergenten Aufschiebungen führte, folgte während des Unteren Ventersdorp eine jüngere Zerrungsphase, bei der es zu einem staffeiförmlgen Zerbrechen der ursprünglich eingeengten Scholle kam. Die Zerrung hängt sehr wahrscheinlich mit dem Zerbrechen der Beckenrandregion während oder unmittelbar nach der Extrusion der Unteren Ventersdorp-Laven zusammen. Dabei wurde ein schmaler randparalleler Streifen der Beckenfüllung in einem Graben versenkt ('Odendaalsrus-Graben). Die abgesunkenen Schollenteile sind in sich noch stark zerbrochen und gewöhnlich schiefgestellt. Da der versenkte Streifen durch ein primäres Einmuldungsstadium hindurchgegangen ist, deutet die Grabenbildung offenbar eine Fortsetzung der Beckenbildungsvorgänge 'mit anderen Mitteln an. — Die Bewegungen haben ein Alter von etwa 2,1 Mrd. Jahren; sie fallen somit ins frühe Präkambrium und sind keinesfalls 'intraalgonkisch, wie es noch bis in die jüngste Vergangenheit angenommen wurde.Tektonische Experimente haben ergeben, daß sich die wichtigsten Störungssysteme der realen Beckenrandstrukturen bei entsprechend gewählter Versuchsanordnung auch künstlich erzeugen lassen.

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The Orange Free State goldfield represents the southernmost part of the Witwatersrand Basin (Fig. 1) which is completely buried under a cover of Ventersdorp and Karroo rocks. The pre-Karroo geology of this area is characterized by a major rift system trending SSW-NNE ('Odendaalsrus graben), followed to the east by a V-shaped horst and two minor rift blocks (Fig. 2). The main graben is bounded by two principal faults (Border Fault, De Bron Fault, Fig. 4) which are roughly parallel to the western rim of the basin.A tectonic analysis of the basin-edge structures in the northern part of the graben reveals that the basin rim has been subjected to a sequence of deformational acts working over a considerable period of time. A primary compression of the basin-edge region in Upper Witwatersrand times resulted in the formation of a marginal fold; since sedimentation continued, the different stages of the folding process were sometimes preserved by a set of minor unconformities within the youngest sediments (Elsburg A Reefs, Fig. 5). With increasing lateral pressure a couple of reverse faults developed to support the folding (faults No. 10 and 11, Figs. 6 and 7); the minor thrust faults No. 19 and 21 represent the second component of this fault system. A reconstruction of the original depositional plain of the Lower Agglomerate shows that the main thrust faults (No. 10 and 11) are definitely older than the Elsburg A 1 Reef and have been obviously revived after the younger sediments had been laid down (Fig. 8 a).In a later stage compression gave way to tensional forces bringing about a fracturing of the overturned limb of the marginal fold along normal faults (faults No. 4 and 7, Figs. 6 and 7). There is reason to believe that the tensional phase was associated with the incipient rifting during early Ventersdorp times and that these faults were more or less contemporaneous with the general tilting of the basin-edge as displayed to-day (cf. Figs. 3 and 4). Because of the westerly tilt the Boulder Beds dip towards the west, although they must have been originally deposited on a ± horizontal or slightly basinward dipping plain. Faulting was mostly accomplished before deposition of the Ventersdorp sediments and the Upper Ventersdorp Lavas took place; the latter are seldom or only to a small degree affected by the fractures (Figs. 3 and 4). — The age of the tectonics is about 2,1×10⁹ years, i. e. early Precambrian and not Algonkian as formerly supposed.Experimental work aiming at an imitation of the observed basin-edge structures has shown that the principal tectonic features can be produced artificially (Figs. 8 a and b). This refers in particular to the main system of thrust-faults as well as to the younger step-faults caused by tension.

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Résumé Les structures tectoniques au bord du Bassin de Witwatersrand dans le district de mines d'or septentrional de la République d'Orange (Afrique du Sud) ont été analysées. Il s'est montré qu'elles sont déterminées par l'action de plusieurs phases de déformation successives de caractères différents. Une phase de compression d'âge Witwatersrand supérieur a d'abord amené un redressement des couches dans une zone marginale du bassin, avec chevauchements à vergences «normales» et inverses. Elle était suivie pendant le Ventersdorp inférieur d'une phase de traction qui produisit des cassures en gradins dans le secteur primitivement comprimé. La traction est très vraisemblablement en relation avec l'effondrement de la zone marginale du bassin pendant ou peu après l'extrusion des laves inférieures de Ventersdorp. Une bande étroite de sédiments, parallèle au bord du bassin, fut alors affectée d'un affaissement (formation du «graben d'Odendaalsrus») où de nombreuses cassures à l'intérieur des compartiments affaissés ont résulté dans la formation de blocs plus ou moins inclinés. Puisque cette zone a d'abord passé par un stade synclinal, on a l'impression que l'effondrement du graben ne représente que la reprise de l'affaissement général du bassin à l'aide d'une «technique nouvelle». - Les mouvements ont un âge de 2.1 milliards d'années, ils datent par conséquent du Précambrien inférieur et ne sont point «intra-algonkiques» comme il fut encore admis tout récemment.Il a été possible de reproduire artificiellement les systèmes de failles les plus importants de la zone marginale du bassin, si les conditions de l'expériment étaient favorables.

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