Schorlomite: a discussion of the crystal chemistry, formula, and inter-species boundaries

Examination of schorlomite from ijolite at Magnet Cove (USA) and silicocarbonatite at Afrikanda (Russia), using electron-microprobe and hydrogen analyses, X-ray diffraction and Mössbauer spectroscopy, shows the complexity of substitution mechanisms operating in Ti-rich garnets. These substitutions involve incorporation of Na in the eightfold-coordinated X site, Fe²⁺ and Mg in the octahedrally coordinated Y site, and Fe³⁺, Al and Fe²⁺ in the tetrahedrally coordinated Z site. Substitutions Ti⁴⁺Fe³⁺Fe³⁺_–1Si_–1 and Ti⁴⁺Al³⁺Fe³⁺_–1Si_–1 are of major significance to the crystal chemistry of schorlomite, whereas Fe²⁺ enters the Z site in relatively minor quantities (<3% Fe). There is no evidence (either structural or indirect, such as discrepancies between the measured and calculated Fe²⁺ contents) for the presence of ^[6]Ti³⁺ or ^[4]Ti⁴⁺ in schorlomite. The simplified general formula of schorlomite can be written as Ca₃Ti⁴⁺₂[Si_3-x(Fe³⁺,Al,Fe²⁺)_xO₁₂], keeping in mind that the notion of end-member composition is inapplicable to this mineral. In the published analyses of schorlomite with low to moderate Zr contents, x ranges from 0.6 to 1.0, i.e. Ti⁴⁺ in the Y site is <2 and accompanied by appreciable amounts of lower-charged cations (in particular, Fe³⁺, Fe²⁺ and Mg). For classification purposes, the mole percentage of schorlomite can be determined as the amount of ^[6]Ti⁴⁺, balanced by substitutions in the Z site, relative to the total occupancy in the Y site: (^[6]Ti⁴⁺–^[6]Fe²⁺–^[6]Mg²⁺– ^[8]Na⁺)/2. In addition to the predominant schorlomite component, the crystals examined in this work contain significant (>15 mol.%) proportions of andradite (Ca₃Fe³⁺₂Si₃O₁₂), morimotoite (Ca₃Fe²⁺TiSi₃O₁₂), and Ca₃MgTiSi₃O₁₂. The importance of accurate quantitative determination and assignment of Fe, Ti and other cations to the crystallographic sites for petrogenetic studies is discussed.

The hard solar X-ray burst of 18 September 1963

A hard solar X-ray burst was observed by J-P. Legrand on 18 September 1963, 13:56 UT, at balloon altitude. It lasted a few minutes; a steep increase was followed by an exponential decay. During its declining phase a weak radio burst was observed on 3 and 10 cm, not on longer wavelengths.Maximum radio intensity occurred two minutes after that of the X-ray burst. The X-ray and radio bursts ended almost simultaneously. Optically a small shortlived (some minutes) flare point occurred simultaneously with the X-ray burst in a magnetically interesting part of the active region of September 1963. The X-burst photons seem to have had an energy of about 0.5 MeV. The burst was therefore of a fairly rare type, since very few other bursts with similar photon energies have been detected up to now.It is suggested that a mass of gas, magnetically confined to a volume of about 5·10²⁵ cm³ in the low corona, containing about 3·10³⁵ electrons was accelerated to energies of about 0.5 MeV. The gas gradually expanded, partly also to higher levels. The gyro-synchrotron radiation, emitted by the plasma became observable after about two minutes. At the lower radio frequencies the radiation was absorbed by overlying undisturbed coronal matter. Quantitative computations justify this model. A detailed summary of the events, and some numerical data are given in the concluding Section 8 and in Table V.     

Heavy rare gases from Rabbit Lake (Canada) and the Oklo mine (Gabon): natural spontaneous chain reactions in old uranium deposits

Xenon isotopic studies confirm natural spontaneous chain reactions at the Oklo mine site (Republic of Gabon) with an integrated neutron flux of approximately 4 × 10²⁰n/cm² and a duration between 14,000 and 70,000 years. Similar studies for the Rabbit Lake deposit (Saskatchewan), a slightly younger site with some evidence of continued geologic activity, shows no evidence of self-supporting reactions.     

Land use and climate change on the Yamal Peninsula of north-west Siberia: some ecological and socio-economic implications

Compared to climate, land use change is expected to comprise a more important component of global change in the coming decades. However, climate is anticipated to supass land use as a factor later in the next century, particularly in the Arctic. Discussed here are the implications of land use and climate change on the Yamal peninsula of north-west Siberia, homeland of the Yamal Nenets. Since the discovery of super-giant natural gas fields in the 1960s, extensive exploration has resulted in direct withdrawal of large areas for infrastructure development and associated disturbance regimes have led to cumulative impacts on thousands of additional hectares of land. The land withdrawals have pushed a relatively consistent or increasing number of reindeer onto progressively smaller parcels of pasture. This has led to excessive grazing and trampling of lichens, bryophytes and shrubs and, in many areas, erosion of sandy soils via deflation. The low Arctic tundra lies entirely within the continuous permafrost zone and ice-rich substrates are widespread. One implication of this is that both anthropogenic and zoogenic distubance regimes may easily initiate thermokarst and aeolian rosion, leading to significant further losses of pastures. Even without industrial distubance, a slight change of the climate would result in massive thermokarst erosion. This would have negative consequences equal to or greater than the mechanical distubances described above. The synergistic effects of land use coupled with climate, change therefore have profound implication for the ecosystems of Yamal, as well as the future of the Nenets culture, society and economy.     

Validation of an annual cycle simulation with a T42-L20 GCM

An annual cycle of an atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) is presented. The winter and summer zonal averages of the atmospheric fields are compared with an observed climatology. The main features of the observed seasonal means are well reproduced by the model. One of the main discrepancies is that the simulated atmosphere is too cold, particularly in its upper part. Some other discrepancies might be explained by the interannual variability. The AGCM surface fluxes are directly compared to climatological estimates. On the other hand, the calculation of meridional heat transport by the ocean, inferred from the simulated energy budget, can be compared to transport induced from climatologies. The main result of this double comparison is that AGCM fluxes generally are within the range of climatological estimates. The main deficiency of the model is poor partitioning between solar and non-solar heat fluxes in the tropical belt. The meridional heat transport also reveals a significant energy-loss by the Northern Hemisphere ocean north of 45° N. The possible implications of model surface flux deficiencies on coupling with an oceanic model are discussed.This paper was presented at the International Conference on Modelling of Global Climate Change and Variability, held in Hamburg 11–15 September 1989 under the auspices of the Meteorological Institute of the University of Hamburg and the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology. Guest Editor for these papers is Dr. L. Dümenil     

Invariant manifolds, phase correlations of chaotic orbits and the spiral structure of galaxies

In the presence of a strong   m = 2  component in a rotating galaxy, the phase-space structure near corotation is shaped to a large extent by the invariant manifolds of the short-period family of unstable periodic orbits terminating at L ₁ or L ₂. The main effect of these manifolds is to create robust phase correlations among a number of chaotic orbits large enough to support a spiral density wave outside corotation. The phenomenon is described theoretically by soliton-like solutions of a Sine–Gordon equation. Numerical examples are given in an N -body simulation of a barred spiral galaxy. In these examples, we demonstrate how the projection of unstable manifolds in configuration space reproduces essentially the entire observed bar–spiral pattern.     

Diurnal atmospheric forcing and temporal variations of the nutation amplitudes

A 29-year time-series of four-times-daily atmospheric effective angular momentum (EAM) estimates is used to study the atmospheric influence on nutation. The most important atmospheric contributions are found for the prograde annual (77 μas), retrograde annual (53 as), prograde semiannual (45 as), and for the constant offset of the pole (δψsinɛ₀=−86 as, δɛ=77 as). Among them only the prograde semiannual component is driven mostly by the wind term of the EAM function, while in all other cases the pressure term is dominant. These are nonnegligible quantities which should be taken into account in the new theory of nutation. Comparison with the VLBI corrections to the IAU 1980 nutation model taking into account the ocean tide contribution yields good agreement for the prograde annual and semiannual nutations. We also investigated time variability of the atmospheric contribution to the nutation amplitudes by performing the sliding-window least-squares analysis of both the atmospheric excitation and VLBI nutation data. Almost all detected variations of atmospheric origin can be attributed to the pressure term, the biggest being the in-phase annual prograde component (about 30 as) and the retrograde one (as much as 100200 as). These variations, if physical, limit the precision of classical modeling of nutation to the level of 0.1 mas. Comparison with the VLBI data shows significant correlation for the retrograde annual nutation after 1989, while for the prograde annual term there is a high correlation in shape but the size of the atmospherically driven variations is about three times less than deduced from the VLBI data. This discrepancy in size can be attributed either to inaccuracy of the theoretical transfer function or the frequency-dependent ocean response to the pressure variations. Our comparison also yields a considerably better agreement with the VLBI nutation data when using the EAM function without the IB correction for ocean response, which indicates that this correction is not adequate for nearly diurnal variations. Received: 10 September 1997 / Accepted: 5 March 1998     

Fast integration of low orbiter's trajectory perturbed by the earth's non-sphericity

A fast algorithm is proposed to integrate the trajectory of a low obiter perturbed by the earth's non-sphericity. The algorithm uses a separation degree to define the low-degree and the high-degree acceleration components, the former computed rigorously, and the latter interpolated from gridded accelerations. An FFT method is used to grid the accelerations. An optimal grid type for the algorithm depends on the trajectory's permissible error, speed, and memory capacity. Using the non-spherical accelerations computed from EGM96 to harmonic degree 360, orbit integrations were performed for a low orbiter at an altitude of 170 km. For a separation degree of 50, the new algorithm, together with the predict-pseudo correct method, speeds up the integration by 145 times compared to the conventional algorithm while keeping the errors in position and velocity below 10⁻⁴ m and 10⁻⁷ m/s for a 3-day arc. Received: 28 July 1997 / Accepted: 1 April 1998