NIMBY localism and national inequitable exclusion alliances: The case of syringe exchange programs in the United States

Syringe exchange programs (SEPs) aim to reduce the harm associated with injection drug use (IDU). Although they have been accepted as critical components of HIV prevention in many parts of the world, they are often unwelcome and difficult to set up and maintain, even in communities hardest hit by IDU-related HIV transmission. This research examines socio-cultural and political processes that shape community and institutional resistance toward establishing and maintaining SEPs. These processes are configured and reinforced through the socio-spatial stigmatizing of IDUs, and legal and public policy against SEPs. Overarching themes the paper considers are: (1) institutional and/or political opposition based on (a) political and law enforcement issues associated with state drug paraphernalia laws and local syringe laws; (b) harassment of drug users and resistance to services for drug users by local politicians and police; and (c) state and local government (in)action or opposition; and (2) the stigmatization of drug users and location of SEPs in local neighborhoods and business districts. Rather than be explained by “not in my back yard” localism, this pattern seems best conceptualized as an “inequitable exclusion alliance” (IEA) that institutionalizes national and local stigmatizing of drug users and other vulnerable populations.     

Physical properties of shungite

This paper presents the results of physical parameters such as bulk porosity, true density, optical reflectance, dynamic elastic moduli, X-ray diffractograms and EPR spectra, determined for shungite. All shungite samples studied are considerably denser materials than anthracite — high rank coal with similar carbon content. Bright shungites were porous with the very dense matrix, while the dull shungite is compact, almost non-porous material. Elastic moduli of the dull shungite are generally higher than those of bright shungites and anthracite. All shungites studied (including anthracite) exhibit the directional dependence of elasticity. The maximum reflectance values of bright shungites are higher than those for dull shungite and anthracite. That corresponds with the denser matrix of these samples and suggests the greatest ordering of graphene layers in the case of bright shungites and also suggests some similarity to meta-anthracite from Paleozoic basins. Reflectance anisotropy of shungites studied are generally lower than that of anthracite. Ordering of graphene layers in bright shungite, as a high rank coal variety, is obvious, but lower anisotropy than that of anthracite is a surprise. X-ray studies confirm a high density of bright shungite. Interplanar distances d_hkl of the shungite (d₀₀₂ = 3.48 Å) are closer to those of anthracite (d₀₀₂ = 3.52 Å) than to those of graphite (d₀₀₂ = 3.35 Å). All results described here show the differences in molecular structure and degree of graphitisation of carbonaceous matter in bright, semi-bright and dull varieties of shungite. Our data could play a key role in production of materials composed of carbon nanoparticles.     

Growth of a young, frequently active composite cone: Ngauruhoe volcano, New Zealand

Ngauruhoe cone, in southern Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, has grown rapidly over the last 2,500 years in an alternation of effusive, strombolian, vulcanian, and sub-plinian eruptions of andesitic magma. At times growth has been 'staccato' in fashion as evidenced in the historical record. Each historical eruption typically lasted days to months, alternating with repose periods of years to decades. Major historic eruptions occurred in 1870 1949 1954-1955 and 1973-1975, encompassing wide variations in eruptive style over short timescales. The early period of cone building appears to have been dominated by a more continuous form of activity characterised by a series of numerous frequent explosive eruptions, with associated lava flows. The 2.2-km³ cone has grown in a piecemeal sectorial manner reflecting constant modification to the morphology of the summit, which has funnelled eruption products to specific sectors of the cone. Eruption rates can be calculated on several different timescales. Discharge rates averaged over individual eruptive pulses vary by two orders of magnitude (2.7-280 m³ s^-1), reflecting variations in high level magma ascent rates and processes such as degassing, which are, in turn, reflected in contrasting eruptive styles. Lower rates (e.g. 0.65 m³ s^-1) are obtained by averaging the discharge over an entire eruption lasting several months and may correspond to the ascent rate of magma batch(es) feeding the eruption. The long-term growth rate of Ngauruhoe is 0.9 km³ ky^-1. This is an average rate reflecting the long-term deep supply rate of magma to crustal reservoirs. By looking at eruption rates on these different timescales we are better able to constrain processes occurring at various depths within the plumbing system. There are few detailed studies of the growth patterns of young volcanic cones, but such data are essential in understanding the dynamics of andesitic systems. More than 60 lavas and pyroclastic units mapped on different sectors of Ngauruhoe cone have been correlated by flow chronology and their distinctive compositions into five groups. Although the cone has grown rapidly, Ngauruhoe shows little evidence for the existence of large crustal magma reservoirs and long-lived magma batches. Instead, abrupt and non-systematic changes in magma chemistry and isotopic composition between and within the five groups indicate that the volcano has an open-system, multi-process, multi-directional character and erupts small (<0.1 km³) and short-lived (10⁰-10³ years) magma batches with no simple time-composition relationships between successive batches.     

Short scale heterogeneity in the lowermost mantle: insights from PcP-P and ScS-S data

We compare lateral variations at the base of the mantle as inferred from a global dataset of PcP-P travel time residuals, measured on broadband records, and existing P and S tomographic velocity models, as well as ScS-S travel time data in some selected regions. In many regions, the PcP-P dataset implies short scale lateral variations that are not resolved by global tomographic models, except under eastern Eurasia, where data and models describe a broad region of fast velocity anomalies across which variations appear to be of thermal origin. In other regions, such as central America and southeastern Africa, correlated short scale lateral variations (several hundred kilometers) are observed in PcP and ScS, implying large but not excessive values for the ratio R=∂ ln V_s/∂ ln V_p (∼2.5). On the other hand, in at least two instances, in the heart of the African Plume and on the edge of the Pacific Plume, variations in P and S velocities appear to be incompatible, implying strong lateral gradients across compositionally different domains, possibly also involving topography on the core-mantle boundary. One should be cautious in estimating R at the base of the mantle from global datasets, as different smoothing and sampling of P and S datasets may result in strong biases and meaningless results.     

Egg to adult identification of 13 freshwater fishes from Italy: a biochemical-genetic key

The family Cyprinidae comprises most of the freshwater fauna of the North Mediterranean region and it is often numerically dominant. Taxonomy based on morphology is problematic, owing to the high intraspecific variation in phenotypic traits, their overlap between species and environmental plasticity of morphometric and meristic characters. A difficult diagnosis, particularly for young developmental stages, can increase resource mismanagement. Here we report on the occurrence of species-specific allozymic patterns, consistent from eggs to adults. These allowed the construction of a biochemical-genetic key for the identification of all stages of 13 freshwater fishes, mainly cyprinids native to the North Mediterranean region (Alburnus alburnus alborella, Barbus plebejus, Chondrostoma genei, Gobio gobio, Leuciscus cephalus, L. lucumonis, L. souffia, Rutilus rubilio, R. erythrophthalmus, Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Tinca tinca, Pseudorasbora parva and Padogobius martensii).     

Middle Eocene to Early Miocene sedimentary evolution of the western Lombardian segment of the South Alpine foredeep (Italy)

The main steps of the sedimentary evolution of the west Lombardian South Alpine foredeep between the Eocene and the Early Miocene are described. The oldest is a Bartonian carbonate decrease in hemipelagic sediments linked with an increase in terrigenous input, possibly related to a rainfall increase in the Alps. Between the Middle Eocene and the early Chattian, a volcanoclastic input is associated with an extensional tectonic regime, coeval with magma emplacement in the southern-central Alps, and with volcanogenic deposits of the European foredeep and Apennines, suggesting a regional extensional tectonic phase leading to the ascent of magma. During Late Eocene to Early Oligocene, two periods of coarse clastic sedimentation occurred, probably controlled by eustasy. The first, during Late Eocene, fed by a local South Alpine source, the second, earliest Oligocene in age, supplied by the Central Alps. In the Chattian, a strong increase in coarse supply records the massive erosion of Central Alps, coupled with a structures growth phase in the subsurface; it was followed by an Aquitanian rearrangement of the Alpine drainage systems suggested by both petrography of clastic sediments and retreat of depositional systems, while subsurface sheet-like geometry of Aquitanian turbidites marks a strong decrease in tectonic activity.     

Footprints and Fetches for Fluxes over Forest Canopies with Varying Structure and Density

A stochastic trajectory model was used to estimate scalar fluxfootprints in neutral stabilityfor canopies of varying leaf area distributions andleaf area indices. An analytical second-order closure model wasused to predict mean wind speed, second moments and the dissipationrate of turbulent kinetic energy within a forest canopy.The influence of source vertical profile on the flux footprint wasexamined. The fetch is longer for surface sourcesthan for sources at higher levels in the canopy. In order tomeasure all the flux components, and thus the total flux, with adesired accuracy, sources were located at the forest floor in thefootprint function estimation. The footprint functions werecalculated for five observation levels above the canopy top. Itwas found that at low observation heights both canopy density andcanopy structure affect the fetch. The higher abovethe canopy top the flux is measured, the more pronounced is the effectof the canopy structure. The forest fetch for flux measurements isstrongly dependent on the required accuracy: The 90% flux fetchis greater by a factor of two or more compared to the 75% fetch. Theupwind distance contributing 75% of flux is as large as 45 timesthe difference between canopy height and the observation heightabove the canopy top, being even larger for low observationlevels.     

Methodological sensitivity of morphometric estimates of coarse fluvial sediment transport

The estimation of fluvial sediment transport rate from measurements of morphological change has received growing recent interest. The revival of the ‘morphological method’ reflects continuing concern over traditional methods of rate determination but also the availability of new survey methods capable of high-precision, high-resolution topographic monitoring. Remote sensing of river channels through aerial digital photogrammetry is a potentially attractive alternative to labour intensive ground surveys. However, while photogrammetry presents the opportunity to acquire survey data over large areas, data precision and accuracy, particularly in the vertical dimension are lower than in traditional ground survey methods. This paper presents results of recent research in which digital elevation models (DEMs) have been developed for a reach of a large braided gravel-bed river in Scotland using both digital photogrammetry and high-resolution RTK GPS ground surveys. A statistical level of change detection is assessed by comparing surfaces with independent check points. The methodological sensitivity of the annual channel sediment budget (1999–2000) to the threshold is presented. Results suggest that while the remote survey methods employed here can be used to develop qualitatively convincing, moderate precision DEMs of channel topography (RMSE=±0.21 m), the remaining errors imply significant limits on reliable change detection which lead to important information losses. Tests at a 95% confidence interval for change detection show that over 60% of channel deposition and 40% of erosion may be obscured by the lower level of precision associated with photogrammetric monitoring when compared to ground survey measurements. This bias reflects the difficulty of detecting the topographic signature of widespread, but shallow deposition on bar tops.     

Centrifuge simulation of the consolidation characteristics of capped marine sediment beds

Marine sediment capping is a technique where clean sand or sediment is placed over contaminated sediment to reduce the migration of contaminants to the environment. Environmental regulations have limited the use of in situ sediment capping due to concerns about the contaminant migration through the cap. A series of centrifuge tests were conducted to simulate the effects of consolidation settlement of capped marine sediment. This study describes the testing and monitoring of the centrifuge tests. The results from the centrifuge tests are interpreted and compared to predictions made by the PSDDF computer program, which can qualitatively estimate the consolidation settlement of capped marine sediment.

Centrifuge tests were utilized to predict the consolidation of marine sediment caused by the placement of a capping layer. The centrifuge tests used the modeling of models technique to verify that correct modeling procedures were utilized. In this study, the maximum deviation between the centrifuge test results and PSDDF prediction was 20%. Thus, designers should utilize PSDDF consolidation settlement results with caution. Dye tracer studies showed the importance of consolidation-induced advective transport of contaminants. Thus, the capping layer must be appropriately designed to reduce the effects of consolidation-induced advective transport. This may be accomplished by adding a reactive barrier or geosynthetic barrier layer to the cap design.     

Mid to late holocene climate evolution of the lake telmen basin, north central mongolia, based on palynological data

Palynological and sedimentological data from Lake Telmen, in north-central Mongolia, permit qualitative reconstruction of relative changes in moisture balance throughout the mid to late Holocene. The climate of the Atlantic period (7500–4500 yr ago) was relatively arid, indicating that Lake Telmen lay beyond the region of enhanced precipitation delivered by the expanded Asian monsoon. Maximum humidity is recorded between 4500 and 1600 cal yr B.P., during the Subboreal (4500–2500 yr ago) and early Subatlantic (2500 yr–present) periods. Additional humid intervals during the Medieval Warm Epoch (1000–1300 A.D. or 950–650 ago) and the Little Ice Age (1500– 1900 A.D. or 450–50 yr B.P.) demonstrate the lack of long-term correlation between temperature and moisture availability in this region. A brief aridification centered around 1410 cal yr B.P. encompasses a decade of cold temperatures and summer frost between A.D. 536 and 545 (1414–1405 yr B.P.) inferred from records of Mongolian tree-ring widths. These data suggest that steppe vegetation of the Lake Telmen region is sensitive to centennial- and decadal-scale climatic perturbations.