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121.
Tectonic inversion is a common phenomenon in island arc settings, especially in back‐arc basins. The reactivation of normal faults as thrusts, triggered by tectonic inversion, produces typical inversion fault‐related folds and thrusts in the hangingwall. These hangingwall inversion geometries are affected by two factors: the geometry of the underlying master fault and the angle of inclined simple shear relative to the regional dip of strata, in the case that the deformation is approximated by simple shear. This study employed numerical simulations to analyse the influence of the antithetic shear angle on the geometry of the hangingwall and displacement along the master fault. The simulation results reveal that a steeply inclined shear vector during extension produces a narrow, steep‐sided half‐graben, whereas a gently inclined shear produces a wide, open basin. After tectonic inversion, a tight anticline is formed under steeply inclined shear, whereas an open anticline is formed under gently inclined shear. Antithetic shear results in reduced total displacement along the master fault, and the greater the angle between the shear direction and the regional dip, the greater the displacement along the master fault. Because the deformation geometry of syn‐extension layers is affected by extension followed by contraction, a change in the shear angle during tectonic inversion produces a wide variety of deformation geometries. Comparison of the simulation results with the results of analogue modelling suggests that the shear angle decreases by 5° during the transition from extension to tectonic inversion and that such a change may be commonly observed in natural geological structures. These results highlight the benefits of numerical simulations, which can be used to readily examine a variety of constraining parameters and thereby lead to a better understanding of the mechanism of hangingwall deformation, avoiding erroneous estimates of the amount of fault displacement. 相似文献
122.
Svend Pedersen Tom Andersen Jens Konnerup-Madsen William L. Griffin 《International Journal of Earth Sciences》2009,98(5):1151-1171
We report U–Pb dates and Lu–Hf isotope data, obtained by LAM-ICPMS, for zircons from metamorphic rocks of the Setesdalen valley,
situated in the Telemark block south of the classic Telemark region of southern Norway. The samples include infracrustal rocks
from the metamorphic basement, metaigneous rocks and metasediments from the Byglandsfjorden supracrustal cover sequence, and
metaigneous rocks which intruded the whole succession. The main crustal evolution took place from 1,550–1,020 Ma, beginning
with the emplacement of juvenile tonalitic melts; the contribution of older crustal material increased with time. Around 1,320 Ma,
further addition of juvenile material occurred, involving both mafic and felsic melts, metamorphism and deformation. Acid
magmas with high FeO*/MgO were intruded at 1,215 Ma, coinciding with underplating elsewhere in South Norway. The period starting
at 1,215 Ma is represented by supracrustal rocks, principally metarhyolites with minor mafic material and immature sediments
of the Byglandsfjorden Group. The crust generation processes ended with the intrusion of diorites and granodiorites at 1,030 Ma,
late in the Sveconorwegian orogeny. Regional processes of metamorphism and deformation (around 1,290 and 1,000 Ma) can be
related to the assembly of Rodinia.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. 相似文献
123.
Ikuho Yamada Barbara B. Brown Ken R. Smith Cathleen D. Zick Lori Kowaleski-Jones Jessie X. Fan 《The Professional geographer》2013,65(2):157-177
Obesity is a growing epidemic in the United States. Walkable neighborhoods, characterized as having the three Ds of walkability (population Density, land use Diversity, and pedestrian-friendly Design), have been identified as a potentially promising factor to prevent obesity for residents. Past studies examining the relationship between obesity and walkability vary in geographic scales of neighborhood definitions and methods of measuring the three Ds. To better understand potential influences of these sometimes arbitrary choices, we test how four types of alternative measures of land use diversity measured at three geographic scales relate to body mass index for 4,960 Salt Lake County adults. Generalized estimation equation models demonstrate that optimal diversity measures differed by gender and geographic scale and that integrating walkability measures at different scales improved the overall performance of models. 相似文献
124.
Kim Hanjun Kang Sarah M. Takahashi Ken Donohoe Aaron Pendergrass Angeline G. 《Climate Dynamics》2021,56(1-2):17-27
Climate Dynamics - We investigate the possible causes for inter-model spread in tropical zonal-mean precipitation pattern, which is divided into hemispherically symmetric and anti-symmetric modes... 相似文献
125.
Ken?M.?FritzEmail author Jack?W.?Feminella 《Aquatic Sciences - Research Across Boundaries》2011,73(4):459-469
Ecological flows between habitats are vital for predicting and understanding structure and function of recipient systems.
Ecological flows across riparian areas and headwater intermittent streams are likely to be especially important in many river
networks because of the shear extent of these interfaces, their high edge-to-width ratio, and the alternation of wet and dry
conditions in intermittent channels. While there has been substantial research supporting the importance of riparian-stream
linkages above-ground, comparatively less research has investigated below-ground linkages. We tested the hypothesis that riparian
roots are colonized by invertebrates as a food source within stream beds of intermittent headwater streams. We compared benthic
invertebrate assemblages colonizing three types of buried substrates (leaves, roots, and plastic roots) among three intermittent
Coastal Plain streams, each with a different riparian management treatment (clearcut, thinned, and reference), over a 1-year
period. Invertebrate density was significantly lower in root litterbags than in plastic roots litterbags, but neither differed
from densities in leaf litterbags. Total invertebrate abundances, however, were significantly higher in leaf and root litterbags
compared to abundances in plastic root litterbags. Invertebrate biomass and richness did not vary among substrates, but invertebrate
density, abundance, and richness all declined from the wet phase (September–December) through the dry phase (June–August).
Meiofauna and aquatic dipterans were the primary colonizing invertebrates during the wet phase. Relative abundance of terrestrial
taxa increased during the dry phase, but their absolute abundance remained lower than aquatic taxa during the wet phase. Invertebrate
composition did not differ among substrate types, but was significantly different among streams and time periods. Cumulative
number of dry days, degree days, and redox depth all strongly correlated with assemblage structure as indicated by ordination
scores. Our results suggest that subsurface invertebrates respond to leaves and roots as food sources, but assemblage composition
is not substrate specific. Colonization of leaves and roots within stream beds by aquatic and terrestrial taxa supports the
idea that headwater intermittent streams are important interfaces for the reciprocal exchange of energy and materials between
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. 相似文献
126.
Small (1–3 mm), hollow spherules of hexahydrite have been collected falling out of the magmatic gas plume downwind of Kīlauea’s
summit vent. The spherules were observed on eight separate occasions during 2009–2010 when a lake of actively spattering lava
was present ~150–200 m below the rim of the vent. The shells of the spherules have a fine bubbly foam structure less than
0.1 mm thick, composed almost entirely of hexahydrite [MgSO4·6H2O] Small microspherules of lava (<5 μm across) along with mineral and rock fragments from the magmatic plume adhered to the
outside of the hexahydrite spherules. Phase relationships and the particulate matter in the magmatic plume indicate that the
spherules originated as a bubbly solution injected into and mixed with the magmatic plume. The most likely mechanism for production
of hexahydrite spherules is boiling of MgSO4-saturated meteoric water in the walls of the conduit above the surface of the lava lake. Solfataric sulfates may thus be
recycled and reinjected into the plume, creating particulates of sulfate minerals that can be distributed far from their original
source. 相似文献
127.
The hyporheic zone is an ecologically important ecotone that describes the extent to which nutrient-rich surface waters penetrate the shallow subsurface adjacent to a flowing surface water body. Although steady-state models satisfactorily explain the incursion of surface water into the subsurface as a function of head gradients developed across streambed riffles, they fail to account for the depth that surface water is observed to penetrate the subsurface or for the extent to which the hyporheic zone develops adjacent to the stream channel. To investigate these issues, transient flow modeling has been conducted at the riffle scale and supported by data for an instrumented site in northern Ontario where stream-stage fluctuations are strictly regulated. Model results show that daily stream-stage fluctuations between 0.6 and 4 m produce oscillating solute flow paths that typically reduce residence times of water and solutes in the hyporheic zone from 60 days or more under steady-state conditions to less than 1 day. Furthermore, similar stream-stage fluctuations increase the depth that solutes pervade the subsurface and banks lateral to the stream from around 1 m under steady-state conditions to as much as 2 and 10 m, respectively. The results demonstrate that the transient flow conditions triggered in the subsurface by variable stream stage can exert a strong influence on hyporheic zone development and have important implications for the hyporheos. The results are especially important for hyporheic communities that may survive gradual changes to their living conditions by migrating to more hospitable aquatic habitats, but are unable to respond to rapid changes provoked by more extreme hydrological events. 相似文献
128.
Cornel E. J. de Ronde Gary J. Massoth David A. Butterfield Bruce W. Christenson Junichiro Ishibashi Robert G. Ditchburn Mark D. Hannington Robert L. Brathwaite John E. Lupton Vadim S. Kamenetsky Ian J. Graham Georg F. Zellmer Robert P. Dziak Robert W. Embley Vesselin M. Dekov Frank Munnik Janine Lahr Leigh J. Evans Ken Takai 《Mineralium Deposita》2011,46(5-6):541-584
Brothers volcano, of the Kermadec intraoceanic arc, is host to a hydrothermal system unique among seafloor hydrothermal systems known anywhere in the world. It has two distinct vent fields, known as the NW Caldera and Cone sites, whose geology, permeability, vent fluid compositions, mineralogy, and ore-forming conditions are in stark contrast to each other. The NW Caldera site strikes for ??600?m in a SW?CNE direction with chimneys occurring over a ??145-m depth interval, between ??1,690 and 1,545?m. At least 100 dead and active sulfide chimney spires occur in this field and are typically 2?C3?m in height, with some reaching 6?C7?m. Their ages (at time of sampling) fall broadly into three groups: <4, 23, and 35?years old. The chimneys typically occur near the base of individual fault-controlled benches on the caldera wall, striking in lines orthogonal to the slopes. Rarer are massive sulfide crusts 2?C3?m thick. Two main types of chimney predominate: Cu-rich (up to 28.5?wt.% Cu) and, more commonly, Zn-rich (up to 43.8?wt.% Zn). Geochemical results show that Mo, Bi, Co, Se, Sn, and Au (up to 91?ppm) are correlated with the Cu mineralization, whereas Cd, Hg, Sb, Ag, and As are associated with the dominant Zn-rich mineralization. The Cone site comprises the Upper Cone site atop the summit of the recent (main) dacite cone and the Lower Cone site that straddles the summit of an older, smaller, more degraded dacite cone on the NE flank of the main cone. Huge volumes of diffuse venting are seen at the Lower Cone site, in contrast to venting at both the Upper Cone and NW Caldera sites. Individual vents are marked by low-relief (??0.5?m) mounds comprising predominately native sulfur with bacterial mats. Vent fluids of the NW Caldera field are focused, hot (??300°C), acidic (pH????2.8), metal-rich, and gas-poor. Calculated end-member fluids from NW Caldera vents indicate that phase separation has occurred, with Cl values ranging from 93% to 137% of seawater values. By contrast, vent fluids at the Cone site are diffuse, noticeably cooler (??122°C), more acidic (pH?1.9), metal-poor, and gas-rich. Higher-than-seawater values of SO4 and Mg in the Cone vent fluids show that these ions are being added to the hydrothermal fluid and are not being depleted via normal water/rock interactions. Iron oxide crusts 3?years in age cover the main cone summit and appear to have formed from Fe-rich brines. Evidence for magmatic contributions to the hydrothermal system at Brothers includes: high concentrations of dissolved CO2 (e.g., 206?mM/kg at the Cone site); high CO2/3He; negative ??D and ??18OH2O for vent fluids; negative ??34S for sulfides (to ?4.6??), sulfur (to ?10.2??), and ??15N2 (to ?3.5??); vent fluid pH values to 1.9; and mineral assemblages common to high-sulfidation systems. Changing physicochemical conditions at the Brothers hydrothermal system, and especially the Cone site, occur over periods of months to hundreds of years, as shown by interlayered Cu?+?Au- and Zn-rich zones in chimneys, variable fluid and isotopic compositions, similar shifts in 3He/4He values for both Cone and NW Caldera sites, and overprinting of ??magmatic?? mineral assemblages by water/rock-dominated assemblages. Metals, especially Cu and possibly Au, may be entering the hydrothermal system via the dissolution of metal-rich glasses. They are then transported rapidly up into the system via magmatic volatiles utilizing vertical (??2.5?km long), narrow (??300-m diameter) ??pipes,?? consistent with evidence of vent fluids forming at relatively shallow depths. The NW Caldera and Cone sites are considered to represent stages along a continuum between water/rock- and magmatic/hydrothermal-dominated end-members. 相似文献
129.
G��nther J. Redhammer Anatoliy Senyshyn Martin Meven Georg Roth Sebastian Prinz Astrid Pachler Gerold Tippelt Clemens Pietzonka Werner Treutmann Markus Hoelzel Bj?rn Pedersen Georg Amthauer 《Physics and Chemistry of Minerals》2011,38(2):139-157
The compound NaFeGe2O6 was grown synthetically as polycrystalline powder and as large single crystals suitable for X-ray and neutron-diffraction experiments to clarify the low temperature evolution of secondary structural parameters and to determine the low temperature magnetic spins structure. NaFeGe2O6 is isotypic to the clinopyroxene-type compound aegirine and adopts the typical HT-C2/c clinopyroxene structure down to 2.5?K. The Na-bearing M2 polyhedra were identified to show the largest volume expansion between 2.5?K and room temperature, while the GeO4 tetrahedra behave as stiff units. Magnetic susceptibility measurements show a broad maximum around 33?K, which marks the onset of low-dimensional magnetic ordering. Below 12?K NaFeGe2O6 transforms to an incommensurately modulated magnetic spin state, with k?=?[0.323, 1.0, 0.080] and a helical order of spins within the M1-chains of FeO6 octahedra. This is determined by neutron-diffraction experiments on a single crystal. Comparison of NaFeGe2O6 with NaFeSi2O6 is given and it is shown that the magnetic ordering in the latter compound, aegirine, also is complex and is best described by two different spin states, a commensurate one with C2??/c?? symmetry and an incommensurate one, best being described by a spin density wave, oriented within the (1 0 1) plane. 相似文献
130.
Ken?NiwaEmail author Takehiko?Yagi Kenya?Ohgushi 《Physics and Chemistry of Minerals》2011,38(1):21-31
Compression behaviors of CaIrO3 with perovskite (Pv) and post-perovskite (pPv) structures have been investigated up to 31.0(1.0) and 35.3(1) GPa at room
temperature, respectively, in a diamond-anvil cell with hydrostatic pressure media. CaIrO3 Pv and pPv phases were compressed with the axial compressibility of β
a > β
c > β
b and β
b > β
a > β
c, respectively and no phase transition was observed in both phases up to the highest pressure in the present study. The order
of axial compressibility for pPv phase is consistent with the crystallographic consideration for layer structured materials
and previous experimental results. On the other hand, Pv phase shows anomalous compression behavior in b axis, which exhibit constant or slightly expanded above 13 GPa, although the applied pressure remained hydrostatic. Volume
difference between Pv and pPv phases was gradually decreased with increasing pressure and this is consistent with the results
of theoretical study based on the ab initio calculation. Present results, combined with theoretical study, suggest that these
complicate compression behaviors in CaIrO3 under high pressure might be caused by the partially filled electron of Ir4+. Special attention must be paid in case of using CaIrO3 as analog materials to MgSiO3, although CaIrO3 exhibits interesting physical properties under high pressure. 相似文献