Cleats and their relation to geologic lineaments and coalbed methane potential in Pennsylvanian coals in Indiana

Cleats and fractures in Pennsylvanian coals in southwestern Indiana were described, statistically analyzed, and subsequently interpreted in terms of their origin, relation to geologic lineaments, and significance for coal permeability and coalbed gas generation and storage. These cleats can be interpreted as the result of superimposed endogenic and exogenic processes. Endogenic processes are associated with coalification (i.e., matrix dehydration and shrinkage), while exogenic processes are mainly associated with larger-scale phenomena, such as tectonic stress.At least two distinct generations of cleats were identified on the basis of field reconnaissance and microscopic study: a first generation of cleats that developed early on during coalification and a second generation that cuts through the previous one at an angle that mimics the orientation of the present-day stress field. The observed parallelism between early-formed cleats and mapped lineaments suggests a well-established tectonic control during early cleat formation. Authigenic minerals filling early cleats represent the vestiges of once open hydrologic regimes. The second generation of cleats is characterized by less prominent features (i.e., smaller apertures) with a much less pronounced occurrence of authigenic mineralization. Our findings suggest a multistage development of cleats that resulted from tectonic stress regimes that changed orientation during coalification and basin evolution.The coals studied are characterized by a macrocleat distribution similar to that of well-developed coalbed methane basins (e.g., Black Warrior Basin, Alabama). Scatter plots and regression analyses of meso- and microcleats reveal a power-law distribution between spacing and cleat aperture. The same distribution was observed for fractures at microscopic scale. Our observations suggest that microcleats enhance permeability by providing additional paths for migration of gas out of the coal matrix, in addition to providing access for methanogenic bacteria.The abundance, distribution, and orientation of cleats control coal fabric and are crucial features in all stages of coalbed gas operations (i.e., exploration and production). Understanding coal fabric is important for coal gas exploration as it may be related to groundwater migration and the occurrence of methanogenic bacteria, prerequisite to biogenic gas accumulations. Likewise, the distribution of cleats in coal also determines pathways for migration and accumulation of thermogenic gas generated during coalification.     

An improved technique for preparing polished thin sections of stony-iron meteorites

Abstract— Polished thin sections of stony-iron meteorites can be prepared easily and quickly using a new technique in which the cooling water to the polishing machine is refrigerated. When using this technique, the silicate and sulfide phases do not heat up and expand differentially, as is often the case when normal procedures are used, and do not pluck out during the polishing process.     

9: Processes of tectonism, magmatism and mineralization: Lessons from Europe

Metallogenic provinces in Europe range in age from the Archaean to the Neogene. Deposit types include porphyry copper and epithermal Cu–Au, volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VMS), orogenic gold, Fe-oxide–Cu–Au, anorthosite Fe–Ti-oxide and sediment-hosted base-metal deposits. Most of them formed during short-lived magmatic events in a wide range of tectonic settings; many can be related to specific tectonic processes such as subduction, hinge retreat, accretion of island arcs, continental collision, lithosphere delamination or slab tear. In contrast, most sediment-hosted deposits in Europe evolved in extensional, continental settings over significant periods of time. In Europe, as elsewhere, ore formation is an integral part of the geodynamic evolution of the Earth's crust and mantle. Many tectonic settings create conditions conducive to the generation of water-rich magma, but the generation of ore deposits appears to be restricted to locations and short periods of change in temperature and stress, imposed by transitory plate motions. Crustal influence is evident in the strong structural controls on the location and morphology of many ore deposits in Europe. Crustal-scale fault–fracture systems, many involving strike-slip elements, have provided the fabric for major plumbing systems. Rapid uplift, as in metamorphic core complexes, and hydraulic fracturing can generate or focus magmatic–hydrothermal fluid flow that may be active for time spans significantly less than a million years. Once a hydrologically stable flow is established, ore formation is strongly dependent on the steep temperature and pressure gradients experienced by the fluid, particularly within the upper crust. In Europe, significant fracture porosity deep in the crystalline basement (1%) is not only important for magmatic–hydrothermal systems, but allows brines to circulate down through sedimentary basins and then episodically upward, expelled seismically to produce sediment-hosted base-metal deposits and Kupferschiefer copper deposits. Emerging research, stimulated by GEODE, can improve the predicting power of numerical simulations of ore-forming processes and help discover the presence of orebodies beneath barren overburden.     

Assimilation of carbonate country rock by the parent magma of the Panzhihua Fe-Ti-V deposit（SW China）：Evidence from stable isotopes

The Panzhihua intrusion in southwest China is part of the Emeishan Large Igneous Province and host of a large Fe-Ti-V ore deposit.During emplacement of the main intrusion,multiple generations of mafic dykes invaded carbonate wall rocks,producing a large contact aureole.We measured the oxygen-isotope composition of the intrusions,their constituent minerals,and samples of the country rock.Magnetite and plagioclase from Panzhihua intrusion haveδ¹⁸O values that are consistent with magmatic equilibrium, and formed from magmas withδ¹⁸O values that were 1-2‰higher than expected in a mantle-derived magma.The unmetamorphosed country rock has highδ¹⁸O values,ranging from 13.2‰（sandstone） to 24.6-28.6‰（dolomite）.The skarns and marbles from the aureole have lowerδ¹⁸O andδ¹³C values than their protolith suggesting interaction with fluids that were in exchange equilibrium with the adjacent mafic magmas and especially the numerous mafic dykes that intruded the aureole.This would explain the alteration ofδ¹⁸O of the dykes which have significantly higher values than expected for a mantle-derived magma.Depending on the exactδ¹⁸O values assumed for the magma and contaminant, the amount of assimilation required to produce the elevatedδ¹⁸O value of the Panzhihua intrusion was between 8 and 13.7 wt.%,assuming simple mixing.The exact mechanism of contamination is unclear but may involve a combination of assimilation of bulk country rock,mixing with a melt of the country rock and exchange with CO₂-rich fluid derived from decarbonation of the marls and dolomites.These mechanisms,particularly the latter,were probably involved in the formation of the Fe-Ti-V ores.     

U-Pb zircon age and Nd isotopic composition of granitoids,charnockites and supracrustal rocks from Heimefrontfjella,Antarctica

Heimefrontfjella and Mannefallknausane, in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, comprise an amphibolite-facies terrain and a granulite terrain, separated by a major mylonite zone. The amphibolite terrain is made up of mafic to felsic metavolcanics and metasediments, intruded by granitoid plutons: the granulite terrain has supracrustal rocks with similar lithologies, intruded by felsic plutonic rocks that crystallized as charnockites.U-Pb zircon ages (conventional and ion microprobe) demonstrate that magmatic activity was confined to a relatively short interval between 1130 and 1045 Ma and was followed in the amphibolite terrain by metamorphism around 1060 Ma. Specific ages are as follows: metarhyolite in the amphibolite terrain, 1093 ± 38 Ma; granitoids in the amphibolite terrain, 1045 ± 9 Ma to 1107 ± 16 Ma, charnockites in the granulite terrain, 1073 ± 8 Ma to 1135 ± 8 Ma, metamorphic zircons in garnet amphibolite and a post-metamorphic pegmatite, both 1060 ± 8 Ma. Older zircons were found only in a metasediment which yielded discordant zircon fractions with²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb ages between 1250 and 1450 Ma, and in a granulite facies metaquartzite, which contained concordant zircons with the following ages: 1104 ± 5 Ma, 1215 ± 15 Ma, 1400 Ma, 1700 Ma, 2000 Ma. The youngest age is interpreted as the age of granulite metamorphism, the older ages as those of detrital zircons.A Sm-Nd mineral isochron age of the garnet amphibolite (960 ± 120 Ma) agrees within error with the U-Pb age of metamorphic zircons (1060 ± 8 Ma). Initial _Nd values (T = 1.1 Ga) for 15 samples range from +4 to–4. The highest came from a metabasalt and two granitoids from Milorgfjella, the northern area; the lowest from the granulite-facies metasediment and from a charnockite, both from Vardeklettane, a nunatak in the south. The positive but subdued values preclude generation directly from depleted MORB-type mantle _Nd + 6 to + 7 at 1.1 Ga) and indicate generation from a source containing older crustal material.

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Zusammenfassung Die Gebiete um Heimefrontfjella und Mannefallknausane in Dronning Maud Land, Antarktis, bestehen aus amphibolith- und granulitfaziellen Grundgebirgskomplexen, die durch eine große Mylonitzone voneinander getrennt sind. Der amphibolithfazielle Komplex besteht aus mafisch bis felsischen Metavulkaniten und Metasedimenten, die von Granitplutonen intrudiert werden. Der Granulitkomplex enthält Suprakrustalgesteine ähnlicher Art, die von Charnockiten intrudiert werden.U-Pb-Alter, die mit der konventionellen Multikorn-Methode und an der Ionen-Mikrosonde an Einzelkörner bestimmt wurden, engen die magmatische Aktivität zwischen 1130 und 1045 Ma ein. Auf diese Periode folgte in dem amphibolithfaziellen Gebiet eine Regionalmetamorphose um 1060 Ma. Die Einzelalter sind wie folgt: in dem amphibolithfaziellen Komplex ergab ein Metarhyolith 1039 ± 38 Ma, während die Granitoide zwischen 1045 ± 9 Ma und 1107 ± 16 Ma variieren. In dem Granulitkomplex wurden die Charnockite auf 1073 ± 8 Ma bis 1135 ± 8 Ma datiert, während metamorphe Zirkone aus einem Granatamphibolith sowie aus einem posttektonischen Pegmatit identische Alter von 1060 ± 8 Ma ergaben. Ältere Komponenten wurden lediglich in einer Metasediment-Probe gefunden, die diskordante Zirkone mit²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb Altern zwischen ca. 1250 und 1450 Ma enthielt, sowie in einem granulitfaziellen Metaquarzit, in dem konkordante Zirkone die folgenden Alter ergaben: 1104 ± 5 Ma, 1215 ± 15 Ma, 1400 Ma, 1700 Ma, 2000 Ma. Das jüngste Zirkonalter aus dem Metaquarzit interpretieren wir als Zeitpunkt der Granulitmetamorphose, während die höheren Alter detritische Komponenten repräsentieren.Eine Sm-Nd Mineralisochrone für einen Granatamphibolith hat ein Alter von 960 ± 120 Ma, das innerhalb der experimentellen Fehler mit einem U-Pb-Alter von 1060 ± 8 Ma für metamorphe Zirkone übereinstimmt. Initiale _Nd-Werte (T = l.1 Ga) für 15 Proben variieren zwischen +4 und -4. Die höchsten Werte wurden für einen Metabasalt und zwei Granitoide von Milorgfjella im nördlichen Arbeitsgebiet bestimmt. Die niedrigsten Werte stammen aus dem granulitfaziellen Metaquarzit und von einem Charnockit, beide aus Vardeklettane, einem Nunatak im Süden. Die leicht positiven Werte lassen eine juvenile Bildung der Wirtsgesteine aus einem MORB-ähnlichen Mantel (_Nd + 6 bis + 7 um 1.1 Ga) nicht zu und deuten ein Ausgangsmaterial mit Komponenten älterer kontinentaler Kruste an.

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Résumé Les régions de Heimefrontfjella et Mannefallknausane situées dans le Dronning Maud Land en Antartique sont formées par deux zones principales à degrés métamorphiques différents: une à faciès amphibolitique et une autre à faciès granulitiques, séparées par une zone mylonitique. Des roches métavolcaniques à composition variant de basique à felsique ainsi que des roches d'origine sédimentaire composent la zone amphibolitique. Elles sont recoupées par des plutons granitiques. La zone granulitique est formée également par des roches d'origine volcanique et sedimentaire qui sont, elles, recoupées par des charnockites.Les mesures d'U-Pb sur zircons (utilisant la méthode conventionnelle et la microsonde ionique) montrent que l'activité magmatique s'est confinée à une période relativement courte entre 1130 Ma et 1045 Ma. Elle a été suivie par un métamorphisme, il y a 1060 Ma, dans la zone amphibolitique. De façon plus détaillée, les âges sont les suivants: dans la zone amphibolitique, rhyolite datée à 1093 ± 38 Ma, granitoïdes datés à 1045 ± 9 Ma et 1107 ± 16 Ma; dans la zone granulitique, charnockites datées entre 1073 ± 8 Ma et 1135 ± 8 Ma, zircons métamorphiques provenant d'une amphibolite à grenat datés à 1060 ± 8 Ma et pegmatite postmétamorphique datée à 1060 ± 8 Ma. Deux roches ont fourni des zircons donnant des âges plus anciens: un sédiment métamorphisé et un metaquartzite. Les âges²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb obtenus pour les fractions discordantes des zircons du metasediment varient entre 1250 et 1450 Ma alors que le metaquartzite contient des zircons concordants avec les âges suivants: 1104±5 Ma, 1215±15Ma, 1400 Ma, 1700 Ma et 2000 Ma. L'âge le plus jeune obtenu pour le métaquartzite est interprété comme représentant l'âge du métamorphisme granulitique alors que les âges plus anciens représentent les âges de zircons détritiques.Une isochrone Sm-Nd sur minéraux a été obtenue sur une amphibolite à grenat. Elle définit un âge de 960 ± 120 Ma qui correspond, aux erreurs près, à l'âge U-Pb des zircons métamorphiques (1060 ± 8 Ma). Les _Ndinitiaux (T = 1,l Ga) obtenus pour 15 échantillons varient entre +4 et –4. Les valeurs les plus élevées ont été obtenues pour un basalte et deux granitoïdes de Milorgfjella situés dans la partie nord; les valeur _Nd les plus faibles proviennent du métasédiment dans la zone granulitique et d'une charnockite. Ces deux échantillons se situent dans le nunatak Vardeklettane dans le Sud. Les _Nd étant positifs mais toutefois plus faibles que la valeur du manteau appauvri à cette période (entre +6 et +7 à 1,1 Ma), une extraction directe du manteau ne peut être retenue et nous suggérons que la région source contenait du matériau crustal plus ancien.

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Heimfreontfjella Mannefallknausane Dronning Maud, , , . , . , ., , 1130 1045 Ma. 1060 . : — 1093±38 Ma, 1045±9 Ma 1107±16 Ma. 1073±8 Ma 1135±8 Ma, - 1060±8 Ma. , , 1250 1450 Ma. : 1104±5 Ma, 1215±15 Ma, 1400 Ma, 1700 Ma 2000 Ma. , , , . Sm-Nd, -, 960±120 Ma, , - 1060±8 Ma. Nd (T=1,1 ) 15 + 4 — 4. Milogrfjella . , Vardeklettane . , MORB (Nd + 6 + 7, 1,1 ); .

     

Diaplectic labradorite glass from the manicouagan impact crater

Physical properties and the crystallization behavior of natural diaplectic labradorite glass of the shocked anorthosite from the Manicouagan impact crater have been studied. Glasses prepared by laboratory fusion of this anorthosite and a synthetic An₅₅ plagioclase composition were used for comparison. The close similarities in the mid-and far-infrared spectra of the diaplectic and fused glasses indicate a comparable degree of short-range order and lack of long-range order in their structures. They also show an identical viscosity-temperature relation, reflecting a similar and probably high degree of coherence of the (Si,Al)O₄ tetrahedra in the network. However, striking differences exist in the crystallization characteristics. Diffusion-controlled crystallization takes place in the fused glass between about 900 and 1,400° C and proceeds generally by the advance of dendritic crystal layers from the surface into the interior of the samples. By contrast, diffusion plays a minor, if any, role in the crystallization of the diaplectic glass, which, on annealing between 800 and 1,000° C reverts to the original plagioclase structure and the primary mineral grains are restored. From the present experimental results it is suggested that high shock-induced temperatures cause onset of the melting process in the compressed crystalline labradorite. However, due to the extremely short duration of the transient high-temperature excursions, the crystal-melt transition does not come to completion. Instead, a disordered transitional state of the compressed material is frozen-in which is recovered after pressure release as diaplectic glass. Its structure thus represents a frozen-in disordered state intermediate between the structures of the crystalline labradorite and its melt. It appears that the diaplectic glass structure is rather inhomogeneous, thereby reflecting the heterogeneous deformational and thermal conditions associated with shock compression.     

Low- and high-alumina komatiites from a Late Archaean sequence,Newton Township,Ontario

Late Archaean komatiitic lavas from Newton Township, Ontario, consist of 6 chemically distinct magma types: 3 komatiites and 3 komatiitic basalts. The succession is unusual in containing both Al- and HREE-depleted komatiites and Al- and HREE-undepleted komatiites. The two types form distinct stratigraphic units separated by komatiitic basalts. Two komatiite types are strongly LREE depleted, whilst the third and the associated komatiitic basalts range from mildly depleted to enriched. Of the six magma types, only the two strongly LREE depleted komatiites represent primary mantle melts. The other komatiite type and the komatiitic basalts were derived from the primary komatiite magmas by combinations of olivine (+chromite) fractionation, assimilation of continental crust, and magma mixing. The two primary magmas may have been derived from similar sources, their contrasting chemistry being due to differing degrees of garnet segregation during melting. A generally applicable conclusion is that a wide range of komatiitic magma types can be generated from a relatively homogeneous depleted mantle, under conditions likely to prevail during the eruption of late Archean greenstone belt sequences.     

Chemical and nanometer-scale structure of kerogen and its change during thermal maturation investigated by advanced solid-state C NMR spectroscopy

We have used advanced and quantitative solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques to investigate structural changes in a series of type II kerogen samples from the New Albany Shale across a range of maturity (vitrinite reflectance R₀ from 0.29% to 1.27%). Specific functional groups such as CH₃, CH₂, alkyl CH, aromatic CH, aromatic C-O, and other nonprotonated aromatics, as well as “oil prone” and “gas prone” carbons, have been quantified by ¹³C NMR; atomic H/C and O/C ratios calculated from the NMR data agree with elemental analysis. Relationships between NMR structural parameters and vitrinite reflectance, a proxy for thermal maturity, were evaluated. The aromatic cluster size is probed in terms of the fraction of aromatic carbons that are protonated (∼30%) and the average distance of aromatic C from the nearest protons in long-range H-C dephasing, both of which do not increase much with maturation, in spite of a great increase in aromaticity. The aromatic clusters in the most mature sample consist of ∼30 carbons, and of ∼20 carbons in the least mature samples. Proof of many links between alkyl chains and aromatic rings is provided by short-range and long-range ¹H-¹³C correlation NMR. The alkyl segments provide most H in the samples; even at a carbon aromaticity of 83%, the fraction of aromatic H is only 38%. While aromaticity increases with thermal maturity, most other NMR structural parameters, including the aromatic C-O fractions, decrease. Aromaticity is confirmed as an excellent NMR structural parameter for assessing thermal maturity. In this series of samples, thermal maturation mostly increases aromaticity by reducing the length of the alkyl chains attached to the aromatic cores, not by pronounced growth of the size of the fused aromatic ring clusters.     

A petrologic, geochemical and Sr–Nd isotopic study on contact metamorphism and degassing of Devonian evaporites in the Norilsk aureoles, Siberia

Devonian evaporites and associated sedimentary rocks in the Norilsk region were contact metamorphosed during emplacement of mafic sills that form part of the end-Permian (~252 Ma) Siberian Traps. We present mineralogical, geochemical and Sr–Nd isotopic data on sedimentary rocks unaffected by metamorphism, and meta-sedimentary rocks from selected contact aureoles at Norilsk, to examine the mechanisms responsible for magma-evaporite interaction and its relation to the end-Permian environmental crisis. The sedimentary rocks include massive anhydrite, rock salt, dolostone, calcareous siltstones and shale, and the meta-sedimentary rocks comprise calcareous hornfels, siliceous hornfels and minor meta-anhydrite and meta-sandstone. Contact metamorphism took place at low pressure and at maximum temperatures corresponding to the phlogopite-diopside stability field. Calcareous hornfels have high CaO, MgO, CΟ₂, SΟ₃, low SiO₂ and initial Sr isotopic ratios of 0.7079–0.7092, features indicative of calcareous siltstone protoliths. Siliceous hornfels, in contrast, have high SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Na₂O, low in other major element oxides and initial Sr isotopic ratios of 0.7083–0.7152, consistent with pelitic or shaley protoliths. Loss of CO₂ in a subset of calcareous hornfels can be explained by decarbonation reactions during metamorphism, but release of SO₂ from evaporites cannot be accounted for by a similar mechanism. Occurrences of wollastonite and a variety of hydrous minerals in the calcareous hornfels are consistent with equilibration with hydrous fluid, which was capable of leaching large quantities of anhydrite in the presence of dissolved NaCl. In this way, substantial sediment-derived sulfur could have been mobilized, incorporated into the magmatic system and released to the atmosphere. The release of CO₂ and SO₂ from Siberian evaporites added to the variety of toxic gases generated during metamorphism of organic matter, coal and rock salt, contributing to the end-Permian environmental crisis.     

Hydrogen isotope fractionation in lipids of the methane-oxidizing bacterium Methylococcus capsulatus

Hydrogen isotopic compositions of individual lipids from Methylococcus capsulatus, an aerobic, methane-oxidizing bacterium, were analyzed by hydrogen isotope-ratio-monitoring gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The purposes of the study were to measure isotopic fractionation factors between methane, water, and lipids and to examine the biochemical processes that determine the hydrogen isotopic composition of lipids. M. capsulatus was grown in six replicate cultures in which the δD values of methane and water were varied independently. Measurement of concomitant changes in δD values of lipids allowed estimation of the proportion of hydrogen derived from each source and the isotopic fractionation associated with the utilization of each source.All lipids examined, including fatty acids, sterols, and hopanols, derived 31.4 ± 1.7% of their hydrogen from methane. This was apparently true whether the cultures were harvested during exponential or stationary phase. Examination of the relevant biochemical pathways indicates that no hydrogen is transferred directly (with C-H bonds intact) from methane to lipids. Accordingly, we hypothesize that all methane H is oxidized to H₂O, which then serves as the H source for all biosynthesis, and that a balance between diffusion of oxygen and water across cell membranes controls the concentration of methane-derived H₂O at 31%. Values for α_l/w, the isotopic fractionation between lipids and water, were 0.95 for fatty acids and 0.85 for isoprenoid lipids. These fractionations are significantly smaller than those measured in higher plants and algae. Values for α_l/m, the isotopic fractionation between lipids and methane, were 0.94 for fatty acids and 0.79 for isoprenoid lipids. Based on these results, we predict that methanotrophs living in seawater and consuming methane with typical δD values will produce fatty acids with δD between −50 and −170‰, and sterols and hopanols with δD between −150 and −270‰.