The origin of crystalline residues in Stardust Al foils: Surviving cometary dust or crystallized impact melts?

Abstract– Samples returned by the Stardust mission from comet 81P/Wild 2 provide an unequaled opportunity to investigate cometary formation and evolution. Crystalline silicates have been identified in impact craters in Stardust Al foil, yet their origin is ambiguous. They may be original cometary components, or they may have grown from melt generated by impact. We have now studied experimental impacts of the calcium silicate mineral wollastonite, using scanning and transmission electron microscopy to document the relationship between impact feature shape and crystal lattice orientation in impact residue. Wollastonite can have a characteristic acicular habit, forming crater shapes that indicate crystal orientation upon impact. From extracted impact residue, we determined the lattice orientation of crystalline material for comparison with the whole particle orientation. We assume that crystallization from melt, without surviving seed nuclei, should result in randomly oriented crystallite growth, with no preferred direction for individual crystals. However, we find that the majority of crystalline material in the residue retains b‐axis orientation parallel to the long axis of the crater form. This, together with impact parameter calculations and lack of Al incorporation by the residue (suggesting melting did not occur), indicates that these crystals and, by analogy, the majority of Al‐free crystalline silicates in Stardust foil, are surviving remnants of the impactor. Furthermore, amorphous wollastonite residue probably did not form via melting and subsequent quenching, but instead by high‐pressure amorphization or degradation of unquenchable phases. Finally, one crystal studied appears to be a new high‐pressure/temperature polymorph of CaSiO₃, indicating that such polymorphs may be observed in Stardust residues in craters.     

Flare-associated coronal expansion phenomena

Two classes of coronal expansion phenomena have been studied in Sacramento Peak coronal movies: Slow, slightly decelerated expansion phenomena (v=∼10− =∼ 2 km/sec) and fast, accelerated, quasi-exploding arches (v =∼ 10 - > 100 km/sec). The various phenomena were found to be associated with flares in different ways: The slow expansions were long lived post-flare phenomena initiated by the flare; the accelerated expanding arches were either (a) arches expanding prior to and apparently exploding at flare onset, or (b) arches apparently emerging from the flare (probably in its initial phase) and rapidly expanding and exploding, or (c) the expansion and disruption of (originally stable) coronal arches during occurrence of a distant flare. These expansions may be considered as evidence for corresponding flare associated changes in the coronal magnetic field. Mitteilung aus dem Fraunhofer Institut Nr. 96.     

基于宏基因组测序研究中太平洋海山富钴结壳区非培养微生物生态功能

富钴结壳是一种重要的海底矿产资源.富钴结壳是生物地球化学和微生物学的研究热点,但目前我们对富钴结壳区的微生物群落结构仍缺乏认识.本研究针对中太平洋海山富钴结壳区沉积物,采用非培养方法获得微生物基因组信息并分析其生态学功能.采用PCR的方法筛选得到78个带有16S rRNA基因的克隆.变形杆菌门和奇古菌门MGI类群分别为古菌和细菌的主要类群.测序并分析了9个带有16S rRNA 基因的fosmid克隆.这些克隆中含有较多的代谢相关和重金属抗性相关基因,表明多样的代谢和抗逆途径在微生物适应富钴结壳环境中发挥了重要作用.代谢途径分析表明,氮循环是富钴结壳区一种重要的生物地球化学过程.此外,发现多个水平基因转移事件,这些基因大部分转移自细菌,少量转移自古菌或植物.比较基因组分析表明,属于奇古菌门MGI类群的克隆W4-93包含一段共线性的基因簇.以上结果说明水平基因转移和基因组分歧进化在微生物适应深海环境过程中发挥了重要作用.     

Seismic-impedance inversion with fuzzy clustering constraints: an example from the Carlin Gold District,Nevada, USA

The seismic reflection method provides high-resolution data that are especially useful for discovering mineral deposits under deep cover. A hindrance to the wider adoption of the seismic reflection method in mineral exploration is that the data are often interpreted differently and independently of other geophysical data unless common earth models are used to link the methods during geological interpretation. Model-based inversion of post-stack seismic data allows rock units with common petrophysical properties to be identified and permits increased bandwidth to enhance the spatial resolution of the acoustic-impedance model. However, as seismic reflection data are naturally bandlimited, any inversion scheme depends upon an initial model, and must deal with non-unique solutions for the inversion. Both issues can be largely overcome by using constraints and integrating prior information. We exploit the abilities of fuzzy c-means clustering to constrain and to include prior information in the inversion. The use of a clustering constraint for petrophysical values pushes the inversion process to select models that are primarily composed of several discrete rock units and the fuzzy c-means algorithm allows some properties to overlap by varying degrees. Imposing the fuzzy clustering techniques in the inversion process allows solutions that are similar to the natural geologic patterns that often have a few rock units represented by distinct combinations of petrophysical characteristics. Our tests on synthetic models, with clear and distinct boundaries, show that our methodology effectively recovers the true model. Accurate model recovery can be obtained even when the data are highly contaminated by random noise, where the initial model is homogeneous, or there is minimal prior petrophysical information available. We demonstrate the abilities of fuzzy c-means clustering to constrain and to include prior information in the acoustic-impedance inversion of a challenging magnetotelluric/seismic data set from the Carlin Gold District, USA. Using fuzzy c-means guided inversion of magnetotelluric data to create a starting model for acoustic-impedance proved important in obtaining the best result. Our inversion results correlate with borehole data and provided a better basis for geological interpretation than the seismic reflection images alone. Low values of the acoustic impedance in the basement rocks were shown to be prospective by geochemical analysis of rock cores, as would be predicted for later gold mineralization in weak, decalcified rocks.     

On the computation of area probabilities based on a spatial stochastic model for precipitation cells and precipitation amounts

A main task of weather services is the issuing of warnings for potentially harmful weather events. Automated warning guidances can be derived, e.g., from statistical post-processing of numerical weather prediction using meteorological observations. These statistical methods commonly estimate the probability of an event (e.g. precipitation) occurring at a fixed location (a point probability). However, there are no operationally applicable techniques for estimating the probability of precipitation occurring anywhere in a geographical region (an area probability). We present an approach to the estimation of area probabilities for the occurrence of precipitation exceeding given thresholds. This approach is based on a spatial stochastic model for precipitation cells and precipitation amounts. The basic modeling component is a non-stationary germ-grain model with circular grains for the representation of precipitation cells. Then, we assign a randomly scaled response function to each precipitation cell and sum these functions up to obtain precipitation amounts. We derive formulas for expectations and variances of point precipitation amounts and use these formulas to compute further model characteristics based on available sequences of point probabilities. Area probabilities for arbitrary areas and thresholds can be estimated by repeated Monte Carlo simulation of the fitted precipitation model. Finally, we verify the proposed model by comparing the generated area probabilities with independent rain gauge adjusted radar data. The novelty of the presented approach is that, for the first time, a widely applicable estimation of area probabilities is possible, which is based solely on predicted point probabilities (i.e., neither precipitation observations nor further input of the forecaster are necessary). Therefore, this method can be applied for operational weather predictions.     

Impact of isostatic land uplift and artificial drainage on oxidation of brackish-water sediments rich in metastable iron sulfide

This study examines the dynamics of sulfur and trace elements (As, Co, Mo, Ni, Ti and Zn) when brackish-water sediments, unusually rich in metastable iron sulfide (probably a mixture of mackinawite and greigite), are brought into the oxidation zone by postglacial isostatic land uplift and farmland drainage. When subaqueous sediments approach the sea level, metastable iron sulfide is oxidized in the upmost layers and pyrite preserved and even accumulated concomitantly trapping Co, Ni and Zn but not As and Mo. When the land uplift has brought the sediments above sea level and natural drainage thus is initiated, the pyrite is oxidized and Co, Ni and Zn are released and transported down the profile. If this setting remained undisturbed, the slightly oxidized sediment (unripe soil) would become covered by peat and thus protected from further oxidation and metal translocation. Often these sediments are, however, artificially drained resulting in extensive oxidation and fast soil-profile development. The soil is an acid sulfate (AS) soil, characterized by low pH (<4), extensive leaching of metals and an abundance of disseminated brownish Fe(III) precipitates. We suggest that the fast soil development is due to initial oxidation of metastable iron sulfide, followed by pyrite oxidation. Drain bottom sediment, which in terms of chemistry and S-isotopes resembled that of the surfacing sea bottom strata, acted during the sampling period as a sink for metals. The abundant preservation of metastable iron sulfide below the groundwater table, even long periods after uplift above the sea level, is a puzzling feature. We suggest that it is the net result of sulfur starvation, an abundance of Fe(II) and strongly reducing conditions.     

Documentary proxies and interdisciplinary research on historic geomorphologic hazards: a discussion of the current state from a central European perspective

During the last two decades, documentary data (written and iconographic sources) have been increasingly employed in geomorphologic research aiming at reconstruction of territorial distribution, temporal occurrence and social and economic impacts of various geomorphologic hazards. The goal of this paper is to broaden the previous discussion (Glade et al. The use of historical data in natural hazard assessments. Kluwer, Dordrecht, 2001) of the methodological constraints on the use of documentary data for geomorphologic hazard research. Using the interdisciplinary approach of geomorphology, historiography and medial studies, we firstly summarise the major finding of papers that have employed various types of documentary data sources to study geomorphologic hazards in different regions. In the second section, we present case studies from the Czech Republic resulting from the ongoing research project that is devoted to the assessment of the potential of documentary data to reconstruct past occurrences of and mitigation strategies for geomorphologic hazards. Finally, we discuss three main methodological issues emerging from our research: (a) problems emerging from the positivist approach to documentary data sources and the necessity for critical analyses of documentary data sources based on modern historiographic approaches, (b) constraints arising from the combination of documentary data from different spatiotemporal scales and (c) lacks in the use of documentary data to study local-based adaptation strategies to cope with geomorphologic hazards.     

Estimation of effective roughness length for heat and momentum from FIFE data

Using aircraft and surface data from the 1987 FIFE experiment in Kansas, we estimate the roughness length for momentum to be 0.19 m (with an error range 0.10–0.35 m), and the ratio of roughness length for momentum to that for heat to be about 16 (with an error range of 7–35).     

Calcium Isotopes (δ44/40Ca) in MPI-DING Reference Glasses, USGS Rock Powders and Various Rocks: Evidence for Ca Isotope Fractionation in Terrestrial Silicates

We report δ^44/40Ca_{(SRM 915a)} values for eight fused MPI‐DING glasses and the respective original powders, six USGS igneous rock reference materials, the U‐Th disequilibria reference material TML, IAEA‐CO1 (Carrara marble) and several igneous rocks (komatiites and carbonatites). Sample selection was guided by three considerations: (1) to address the need for information values on reference materials that are widely available in support of interlaboratory comparison studies; (2) support the development of in situ laser ablation and ion microprobe techniques, which require isotopically homogenous reference samples for ablation; and (3) provide Ca isotope values on a wider range of igneous and metamorphic rock types than is currently available in the scientific literature. Calcium isotope ratios were measured by thermal ionisation mass spectrometry in two laboratories (IFM‐GEOMAR and Saskatchewan Isotope Laboratory) using ⁴³Ca/⁴⁸Ca‐ and ⁴²Ca/⁴³Ca‐double spike techniques and reported relative to the calcium carbonate reference material NIST SRM 915a. The measurement uncertainty in both laboratories was better than 0.2‰ at the 95% confidence level. The impact of different preparation methods on the δ^44/40Ca_{(SRM 915a)} values was found to be negligible. Except for ML3‐B, the original powders and the respective MPI‐DING glasses showed identical δ^44/40Ca_{(SRM 915a)} values; therefore, possible variations in the Ca isotope compositions resulting from the fusion process are excluded. Individual analyses of different glass fragments indicated that the glasses are well homogenised on the mm scale with respect to Ca. The range of δ^44/40Ca_{(SRM 915a)} values in the igneous rocks studied was larger than previously observed, mostly owing to the inclusion of ultramafic rocks from ophiolite sections. In particular, the dunite DTS‐1 (1.49 ± 0.06‰) and the peridotite PCC‐1 (1.14 ± 0.07‰) are enriched in ⁴⁴Ca relative to volcanic rocks (0.8 ± 0.1‰). The Carrara marble (1.32 ± 0.06‰) was also found to be enriched in ⁴⁴Ca relative to the values of assumed precursor carbonates (< 0.8‰). These findings suggest that the isotopes of Ca are susceptible to fractionation at high temperatures by, as yet, unidentified igneous and metamorphic processes.