Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIRS), a New Method to Infer Past Changes in Tree-line Position and TOC using Lake Sediment

This study tests the hypothesis that Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIRS) of lake sediments can be used to infer past changes in tree-line position and total organic carbon (TOC) content of lake water. A training set of 100 lakes from northern Sweden spanning a broad altitudinal and TOC gradient from 0.7 to 14.9 mg/l was used to assess whether vegetation zones and TOC can be modelled from FTIR spectra of surface sediments (0–1 cm) using principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS) regression. Preliminary results show that FTIRS of lake sediments can be used to reconstruct past changes in tree line and the TOC content of lake water, which is hardly surprising since FTIRS registers the properties of organic and minerogenic material derived from the water mass and the drainage area. The FTIRS model for TOC gives a root mean squared error (RMSECV) of calibration of 1.4 mg/l (10% of the gradient) assessed by internal cross-validation (CV) yielding an R_cv² of 0.64. This should be compared with a near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and diatom transfer function for TOC from the same set of lakes, which have a R_cv² of 0.61 and 0.31, and RMSECV of 1.6 and 2.3 mg/l, respectively. The FTIRS-TOC model was applied to a Holocene sediment core from a tree-line lake and the results show similar trends as inferences from NIRS and pollen from the same core. Overall, the results indicate that changes in FTIR spectra from lake sediments reflect differences in catchment vegetation and TOC, and that FTIRS-models based on surface-sediment samples can be applied to sediment cores for retrospective analysis.     

Arsenic fixation on iron-hydroxide-rich and plant litter-containing sediments in natural environments

Iron-hydroxide-rich and plant litter-containing sediments from natural sites contaminated with uranium mine tailing leachates were examined for their ability to adsorb arsenic. The samples with high contents of iron hydroxides (Fe_total concentration, >300 g kg⁻¹) exhibited remarkable fixation of arsenic (up to 40 g As kg⁻¹). This value corresponded approximately to the supersaturation point for natural iron hydroxides under the present conditions, and it was significantly lower than the value found for synthetic iron hydroxides. There was a strong correlation (R=0.8999) between the concentration of iron and that of arsenic at low arsenic contents, indicating adsorption on strong binding sites. Although all the samples had noticeable contents of organic carbon (plant litter), calcium, and manganese, no obvious effect of these elements on arsenic fixation could be detected. The amount of iron hydroxides was found the only fixation-controlling parameter immediately below a leaching water source.     

A hybrid method for the vulnerability assessment of R/C and URM buildings

The methodology followed by the Aristotle University (AUTh) team for the vulnerability assessment of reinforced concrete (R/C) and unreinforced masonry (URM) structures is presented. The paper focuses on the derivation of vulnerability (fragility) curves in terms of peak ground acceleration (PGA), as well as spectral displacement (s _d), and also includes the estimation of capacity curves, for several R/C and URM building types. The vulnerability assessment methodology is based on the hybrid approach developed at AUTh, which combines statistical data with appropriately processed (utilising repair cost models) results from nonlinear dynamic or static analyses, that permit extrapolation of statistical data to PGA’s and/or spectral displacements for which no data are available. The statistical data used herein are from earthquake-damaged greek buildings. An extensive numerical study is carried out, wherein a large number of building types (representing most of the common typologies in S. Europe) are modelled and analysed. Vulnerability curves for several damage states are then derived using the aforementioned hybrid approach. These curves are subsequently used in combination with the mean spectrum of the Microzonation study of Thessaloniki as the basis for the derivation of new vulnerability curves involving spectral quantities. Pushover curves are derived for all building types, then reduced to standard capacity curves, and can easily be used together with the S _d fragility curves as an alternative for developing seismic risk scenarios.     

Ground deformation of Papandayan volcano before, during, and after the 2002 eruption as detected by GPS surveys

Papandayan is an A-type active volcano located in the southern part of Garut Regency, about 70 km southeast of Bandung, Indonesia. Its earliest recorded eruption, and the most violent and devastating outburst, occurred in 1772. The latest eruptions occurred in the period from 11 November–8 December 2002, and consisted of phreatic, freatomagmatic, and magmatic types of eruption. During the latest eruption period, GPS surveys were conducted at several points inside and around the crater in a radial mode, using the reference point located at the Papandayan observatory, about 10 km from the crater. At the points closest to the erupting craters, GPS displacements up to a few decimeters were detected, whereas at the points outside the crater, the displacements were at the centimeter level. The magnitude of displacements observed at each point also showed a temporal variation according to the eruption characteristics. The results show that deformation during eruption tends to be local, e.g. just around the crater. The pressure source is difficult to be properly modeled from GPS results, due to the limited GPS data available and differences in topography, geological structure, and/or rheology related to each GPS station.     

Gaseous and Particulate Oxidized and Reduced Nitrogen Species in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer in Scandinavia in Spring

Observations of the concentration of several nitrogen containing compounds at five rural Scandinavian sites during March–June 1993 are reported. Total nitrate (NO ₃ ^- + HNO₃) and total ammonium (NH ₄ ⁺ + NH₃) were measured by denuder and filter pack. In general the methods agree well. At all sites the particulate fraction dominated, with the largest fraction of NO ₃ ^- and the lowest of NH ₄ ⁺ at the sites which were closest to the emission sources. The fraction of NO ₃ ^- of total nitrate increased with increasing NO₂ concentrations, indicating that the nighttime conversion of NO₂ to NO ₃ ^- is an important route of formation for NO ₃ ^- . A positive correlation was found between HNO₃ and O₃ in June at all sites, while no correlation was found early in the spring. Model calculations were made with a lagrangian boundary layer photooxidant model for the whole period, and compared to the measured concentrations. The calculated ratio between mean observed and modelled daily maximum concentrations of ozone over the measurement period were within +/–10% at all sites. The models ability to describe the daily ozone maximum concentration was satisfactory with an average deviation of 19–22% from the observed concentrations. HNO₃ was underestimated by over 50% at all sites except the one closest to the emission sources. The correlation between modelled and observed concentrations was generally best for the sites with shortest transport distance from the sources of emission.     

Advective contributions to the heat balance of the german bight (LV Elbe 1) and the central north sea (OWS Famita)

Summary The mean annual cycle of the net energy flux through the sea surface and of the heat storage are investigated in detail using observations of the Light Vessel LV Elbe 1 for the period 1962-1986 in the German Bight and at Ocean Weather Ship OWS Famita for the period 1965-1978 in the central North Sea. The investigation confirms the general geographical picture of the heat budget of the German Bight that shows a net loss to the atmosphere by a long-term mean of -15 W m^-2. The radiative surface input of 113 W m^-2 is balanced by -62 W m^-2 net back radiation, -51 W m^-2 of latent heat flux and -15 W m^-2 of sensible heat flux. The heat advection calculated as the residual of the heat storage rate and surface energy balance is 16 W m^-2. The mean annual cycles of heat storage and surface energy balance are nearly equal, and the temperature variations are mainly driven by local heat input. The small differences build up the annual advection cycle. Warm water advection occurs from October to April and cold water advection in summer from May to September. The seasonal advection variability is extreme in winter and summer, and the ranges slow down in spring and autumn, when the sign of the heat balance changes. The OWS Famita is situated also in an area of net energy loss to the atmosphere, showing a long-term annual mean loss of -16 W m^-2. The surface radiation input of 105 W m^-2 is mainly balanced by outgoing long wave back radiation of -60 W m^-2 and a latent heat flux of -49 W m^-2. A minor contribution to the heat balance is the sensible heat flux of -12 W m^-2. Warm water advection occurs in winter and spring. Variability is greater than at LV Elbe 1. Calculated monthly fluxes show the dominance of the energy gain of incoming solar radiation. Net long-wave radiation is nearly constant with time. The sensible heat flux serves as a heat source only at LV Elbe 1 from May to June. The latent heat flux is a loss term all the year. The heat storage cycle is nearly equal to the surface energy balance at LV Elbe 1 ; the differences are more irregular at OWS Famita. The temperature variations are mainly driven by local heat input. The simplified one-dimensional balance holds generally for the heating period in both regions, although for some months the magnitude of the advection is up to a third of the net surface fluxes or the storage rate. At LV Elbe 1 from April to December, the heat budget is dominated by local dynamics. At OWS Famita the advective contribution is less than 30% of net surface heat input from May to October. The dominance of solar radiation in determining the surface heat fluxes, and the annual cycles of the storage rate in phase justify the use of one-dimensional models as a first approximation of the temperature dynamics in these regions. Comparisons of simulations of the temperature cycle at both sites with observations give sufficient precision during most parts of the seasonal cycle. Suitable data sets to drive and validate these models are now available and different models should be tested.

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Advektive beitr?ge zur w?rmebilanz der deutschen bucht (feuerschiff elbe 1) und zur w?rmebilanz der zentralen nordsee (Wetterschiff Famita)

Zusammenfassung Untersucht wurde der mittlere Jahresgang vom W?rmeeintrag durch die Meeresoberfl?che und vom W?rmeinhalt der Wassers?ule. Dazu wurden Messungen aus der Deutschen Bucht vom Feuerschiff Elbe 1 für die Jahre 1962-1986 und Messungen in der zentralen Nordsee vom Wetterschiff Famita für die Jahre 1965-1978 verwendet. Die Untersuchung best?tigt das generelle Bild einer W?rmeabgabe an die Atmosph?re von -15 W m^-2 im langj?hrigen Mittel für die Deutsche Bucht. Die kurzwellige Einstrahlung von 113 W^-2 wird durch -62 W m^-2 langwellige Ausstrahlung, -51 W m^-2 latenten W?rmefluβ und -15 W m^-2 sensiblen W?rmefluβ nahezu balanciert. Die berechnete W?rmeadvektion als Residuum aus W?rmeinhalt und Nettow?rmefluβ an der Meeresoberfl?che betr?gt 16 W m^-2 Der Jahresgang des W?rmeinhaltes und der Jahresgang des Nettow?rmeflusses an der Oberfl?che sind fast gleich, so daβ der Temperaturjahresgang haupts?chlich durch den lokalen W?rmeeintrag gesteuert wird. Kleine Abweichungen hiervon bestimmen den Jahresgang der W?rmeadvektion. Warmwasseradvektion tritt von Oktober bis April auf. Kaltwasseradvektion liegt im Sommer von Mai bis September vor. Die Variabilit?t der W?rmeadvektion ist im Winter und Sommer am gr?βten, w?hrend die Variabilit?t im Frühjahr und Herbst geringer ist, wenn sich das Vorzeichen der W?rmebilanz ?ndert. Das Wetterschiff Famita befindet sich ebenfalls in einer Region, in der W?rme an die Atmosph?re abgegeben wird. Die W?rmeabgabe betr?gt -16 W m^-2 im langzeitlichen Mittel. Die kurzwellige Einstrahlung von 105 W m^-2 wird haupts?chlich durch -60 W m^-2 langwellige Ausstrahlung, -49 W m^-2 latenten W?rmefluβ und -12 W m^-2 sensiblen W?rmefluβ balanciert. Warmwasseradvektion tritt im Winter und Frühjahr auf. Die Variabilit?t der W?rmeadvektion ist gr?βer als bei Feuerschiff Elbe 1. Die berechneten monatlichen Energieflüsse zeigen, daβ die solare Einstrahlung den Jahresgang der W?rmebilanz dominiert. Die effektive Ausstrahlung ist nahezu konstant. Die sensible W?rme wirkt nur bei Feuerschiff Elbe 1 von Mai bis Juni als W?rmequelle. Der latente W?rmefluβ ist w?hrend des gesamten Jahres negativ. Für Feuerschiff Elbe 1 ist der W?rmeinhalt der Wassers?ule mit dem Energieeintrag an der Oberfl?che in Phase, w?hrend bei Wetterschiff Famita Differenzen auftreten. Die Temperaturvariationen sind haupts?chlich durch den lokalen W?rmeeintrag bestimmt. Diese vereinfachten Verh?ltnisse gelten für beide Regionen, obwohl für einige Monate die W?rmeadvektion bis zu einem Drittel des Nettow?rmeflusses an der Oberfl?che betragen kann. Bei Feuerschiff Elbe 1 wird die W?rmebilanz von April bis Dezember durch die lokale Dynamik bestimmt. Bei Wetterschiff Famita ist die W?rmeadvektion von Mai bis Oktober kleiner als 30% vom Oberfl?cheneintrag. Die Dominanz der solaren Einstrahlung für die W?rmebilanz an der Oberfl?che und der phasengleiche Jahresgang des W?rmeinhaltes rechtfertigen es, eindimensionale Wassers?ulenmodelle für die Region zu verwenden, um die Dynamik der Temperatur zu berechnen. So zeigt der Vergleich von simulierten und gemessenen Temperaturjahresg?ngen an beiden Positionen eine ausreichende Genauigkeit über weite Teile des Jahres. Damit stehen neben der gezeigten W?rmebilanzabsch?tzung zwei Datens?tze zur Verfügung, um Modelle zu betreiben, zu validieren und verschiedenartige Modelle zu vergleichen.

     

The oxygen isotope fractionation behaviour of kyanite in experiment and nature

The oxygen isotope fractionation between kyanite and calcium carbonate has been investigated experimentally at four temperatures in the range between 625 and 775 °C at 13 kbar. Because of low exchange rates, the isotopic reaction was enhanced by polymorphic transformation of andalusite to kyanite. With this experimental modification a close approach to equilibrium was reached in all runs. The temperature dependence of the equilibrium fractionation is described by the equation 1000 ln _ky-cc=−2.62×10⁶/T ². Application of the experimental results to natural quartz-kyanite-garnet assemblages indicates the preservation of the oxygen isotope composition of kyanite acquired during its formation, reflecting its extremely low oxygen diffusivity. This refractory behaviour restricts the use of kyanite for thermometry but opens the possibility to use its O-isotope composition as an indicator for recognition of polymetamorphic rock histories and reconstruction of the prograde evolution of a metamorphic sequence. Received: 8 June 1998 / Accepted: 24 August 1998     

Gravitational orogenic collapse vs plate-boundary stresses: a numerical modelling approach to the Permo-Carboniferous evolution of Central Europe

A two-dimensional thermo-mechanical finite element model is used to study the Permo-Carboniferous evolution of Central Europe along a lithosphere-scale transect from the Variscan Internides to the undeformed foreland. The study concentrates on a quantitative evaluation of the processes controlling late-orogenic extension and destruction of the Variscides, particularly the gravitational instability of thickened crust. Modelling results suggest that gravitational forces along cannot reproduce the observed timing and amount of Permo-Carboniferous crustal thinning. Tensile plate-boundary forces are required in addition to gravitation to restore a crustal thickness of approximately 30?km in the Variscan Internides. Stresses as little as 10?MPa result in up to 28% extension and a good fit between observed data and model predictions. It is concluded that the Stephanian to Rotliegend evolution in the vicinity of the modelled traverse resulted not from gravitational forces inherited from Variscan crustal thickening, but was related to a change in orientation of the plate-boundary stresses at the end of the Westphalian.